# The Works of Aristotle, Vol. VII: Problemata - Author: Aristotle - Source: Internet Archive item `worksofaristotle0007wdro` (https://archive.org/details/worksofaristotle0007wdro) - Note: OCR plain text from a scanned public-domain edition; minor OCR artifacts may remain. --- in 2022 with funding from Kahle/Austin Foundation SUste YVORKS OF ARISTOTLE TRANSLATED INTO ENGLISH UNDER THE iDITORSHIP OF Wie ROSS Ni As FELLOW AND TUTOR OF ORIEL COLLEGE DEPUTY PROFESSOR OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD VOLUME VII Pepe Bla MATA BY Bee Oho DE OXFORD AT THE CLARENDON PRESS Oxford University Press, Ely House, London W. 1 GLASGOW NEW YORK TORONTO MELBOURNE WELLINGTON CAPE TOWN SALISBURY IBADAN NAIROBI DAR ES SALAAM LUSAKA ADDIS ABABA BOMBAY CALCUTTA MADRAS KARACHI LAHORE DACCA KUALA LUMPUR SINGAPORE HONG KONG TOKYO FIRST EDITION 1927 REPRINTED LITHOGRAPHICALLY IN GREAT BRITAIN AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, OXFORD BY VIVIAN RIDLER, PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY FROM SHEETS OF THE FIRST EDITION 1953, 1963, 1971 PROBLEMATA BY Pee S.-P ORS) ERMA, Professor of Greek in the University of Sheffield Formerly Scholar of Oriel College 111049 ST. MARY'S UNIVERSITY LIBRARY SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS IN PIAM MEMORIAM PATRIS DILECTI MICHAELIS SEYMOUR FORSTER B.C.L., M.A.: COLL. WINTON. ET COLL. NOV. OXON, QUONDAM SCHOLARIS: OBIIT. ID. MAI. MDCCCCXXI. To Suvardv yap % pidia émi€nret, ov TO Kat’ dgiav’ ovde yap éotw év maar, Kabamep ev Tals mpds Tos Beots Tipais kal rovs yovets* ovdels yap tiv dgiav mor’ av droboin. Aristotle, Zt. Mic. 116315. baale cna ae Pe : ne nce vs ees Tinie a neers aa joe eet aime 4 Someers as =a i he ay ie v8 fat ere ad hs oo leah # PPE Ack THE inclusion of the Prod/emata in the Aristotelian Corpus is no doubt due to the fact that Aristotle is known to have written a work of this kind, to which reference is made in his genuine works and by other writers. An examination of these references shows that some of them can be connected with passages in the Prodlemata, while others cannot; from which it may be concluded that, while the Problemata is not the genuine Aristotelian work, it nevertheless contains an-element derived from such a work. It is also obviously indebted to other Aristotelian treatises, especially those on Natural History, to the Hippocratean writings, and to Theophrastus. The repetitions and con- tradictions which occur in the work seem to show that it was a gradual compilation by several hands; and, if one may judge from the late forms of words which occur in several passages, it did not reach its final form until some time after the beginning of the Christian Era. Some critics would date its completion as late as the fifth or sixth century A.D. The doctrine throughout is Peripatetic, and the variety of subjects treated shows the wide interests of that school. The text used for this translation is that of Ruelle- Knoellinger-Klek (Leipzig, Teubner, 1922). The preface to that edition contains a complete account of the MSS. and a valuable bibliography.! Wherever any other reading is adopted the fact is stated in the foot-notes. 1 An important contribution to the text (not mentioned in this bibliography) is that of the late Mr. H. P. Richards in his Av?stotelica (London, Grant Richards, 1915). This only came into my hands after I had completed the first draft of my translation; it confirmed in several passages conclusions at which I had arrived independently. Vili PREFACE Professor W. D. Ross has been good enough to read the translation both in MS. and in proof; a small part of the debt which I owe him is indicated in the foot-notes, but there are innumerable other passages in which his vast knowledge of Aristotelian usage has enabled me to intro- duce material improvements. I have also to thank Sir Henry Hadow, D.Mus., Vice-Chancellor of the University of Sheffield, and my colleague Mr. G. E. Linfoot, Mus.Bac., B.Sc., for generous assistance in elucidating the Musical Problems. THE UNIVERSITY, ESS. FORSTER: SHEFFIELD, 1 Fed. 1926. CONTENTS BOOK I. 859% Medicine. II. 866> Perspiration. III. 8712 The Drinking of Wine and Drunkenness. IV. 8762 Sexual Intercourse. V. 880> Fatigue. VI. 885 The Positions assumed in Lying down and in other Postures. VII. 8862 Sympathetic Action. VIII. 887 Chill and Shivering. IX. 88g» Bruises, Scars, and Weals. X. 891% Summary of Physical Problems. XI. 808 The Voice. XII. 906% Things of Pleasant Odour. XIII. 907 Things of Unpleasant Odour. XIV. gog? The Effect of Locality on Temperament. XV. gto’ Mathematical Theory. XVI. 913% Inanimate Things. XVII. 915” Animate Things. XVIII. 916” Literary study. XIX. 917 Music. XX. 923% Shrubs and Vegetables. XXI. 927% Barley-meal, Barley-cake, &c. XXII. 930% Fruit. XXIII. 9312 Salt Water and the Sea. XXIV. 936% Hot Water. DeEXVin 937" The-Atr. XXVI. 940% The Winds XXVII. 947” Fear and Courage. XXVIII. 949% Temperance and Intemperance, Continence and Incontinence. XXIX. 950% Justice and Injustice. XXX. 953% Prudence, Intelligence, and Wisdom. MXIT. 957* The Eyes. XXXII-~ 960% The Ears. XMXXIII. 961 The Nose. XXXIV. 963 The Mouth and its parts. XXXV. 964» The Effects of Touch. XOXOXO IE EOOS Dae vnace, XXXVII. 965» The Whole Body. XXXVIII. 966° The Coloration of the Flesh. . 23 , re = Mee - ~ * : aa _ ZW ore pez 2 ee a td P ead 7 Tak a4 not ees ee alle vk ; ria aS Te > eo coal we es Lae Se é ma: aoe Ct: ; = t ; ie coy pam a ‘ > * ie: 55 ieee pened —,€ pep ™ ; 72 ia “sa ‘ yest a) our PROBLEMATA BOOK I PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH MEDICINE I WHY is it that great excesses cause disease ? Is it because 859" they engender excess or defect, and it is in these after all that disease consists ? 2 But why is it that diseases can often be cured if the patient indulges in excess of some kind? And this is the 5 treatment used by some doctors; for they cure by the excessive use Of wine or water or salt, or by over-feeding or starving the patient. Is it because the causes of the disease are opposites of one another, so that each reduces the other to the mean? 3 Why is it that the changes of the seasons and the winds intensify or stop diseases and bring them to a crisis and 10 engender them? Is it because the seasons are hot and cold and moist and dry, while diseases are due to excess of these qualities and health to their equality? In that case, if the disease is due to moisture or cold, a season which has the opposite characteristics stops it; but if a season of the opposite kind! follows, the same admixture of qualities being caused as before intensifies the disease and kills the patient. For this reason the seasons even cause disease in healthy persons, because by their changes they destroy the proper admixture of qualities; for it is at the same time improved by suitable seasons, times of life, and locali- ties. The health therefore requires careful management at times of change. And what has been said generally as to the effect of the seasons applies also in detail; for changes of winds and of age and of locality are to some extent 20 changes of season. These also therefore intensify and stop diseases and bring them to a crisis and engender them, as ~~ iS] 1 i,e. wet or cold. 645-25 B 859° 25 b ue io 15 PROBLEMATA do the seasons and the risings of certain constellations, such as Orion and Arcturus and the Pleiads and the Dogstar,’ since they cause? wind and rain and fine weather and storms and sunshine. Why ought emetics to be avoided at the changes of the seasons? Is it in order that there may be no disturbance when the excretions ® are being altered by such changes ? Why is it that the feet swell both of those who are bilious and of those who are suffering from starvation? Is it in both cases the effect of wasting? For those who are starving waste because they do not receive any nourishment at all, while the bilious waste because they do not derive any benefit from the nourishment which they take. Why it is that, though the diseases due to bile occur * in the summer (the season when fevers are at their height), acute diseases due to bile occur rather in the winter? Is it because, being accompanied by fever, they are acute because they are violent, and violence is unnatural? For fervent inflammation is set up when certain parts of the body are moist, and inflammation, being due to an excess of heat, engenders fevers. In the summer, therefore, diseases are dry and hot, but in the winter they are moist and conse- quently acute (for they soon kill the patient), for concoction will not take place because of the abundance of the excre- tion. Why is it that the plague alone among diseases infects particularly persons who come into contact with those who are under treatment for it? Is it because it is the only disease to which all men alike are liable, and so the plague affects any one who is already ina low state of health? For ‘ Cp. Hippocr. de aere, &c., § 11 (Gundermann, p. 26, 24 ff.). * The triple repetition of damep points to some corruption in the text, and the clause worep mvevadtay ... ddéas Cannot be translated. It is probable that éorep has displaced some such words as atria ovat; Theodore Gaza’s version (quoted hereafter as T.G.) renders gui flatus imbresque excitant, gui serenitates frigora teporesve solent afferre. * For the various excretions see D’A. W. Thompson’s note on 160 VEle MST. * Reading voonparey (Srrav) ev rd Oepe from T. G. 4 5 6 7 BOOK I. 7 859° they quickly become infected by the inflammatory matter caused by the disease which is communicated by the patient. 20 3. «=Why is it that, when north winds have been prevalent in the winter, if the spring is rainy and characterized by south winds the summer is unhealthy with fever and oph- thalmia?' Is it because the summer finds the body full of alien humours, and the earth, and any place in which 2; men dwell, becomes moist and resembles localities which are regarded as permanently unhealthy? The result is that, first, ophthalmia occurs when the excretion in the region of the head liquefies, and, secondly, fever ensues. For it is noticeable that anything which admits of extreme 8602 cold also admits of extreme heat,— water, for example, and a stone, of which the former boils quicker than other things, the latter burns more.? As, therefore, in the air a stifling heat occurs when it grows warm owing to its density, so likewise in the body stifling and heat are engendered, and heat in the body is fever and in the eyes ophthalmia. Generally speaking the change which occurs when a warm, dry summer follows immediately on a wet spring, being violent has a deleterious effect upon the body. The effect is still worse if the summer is rainy ; for then the sun finds material, which it will cause to boil in the body as in the earth and air; the result is fever and ophthalmia. 10 on y Why is it that, if the winter is characterized by south winds and rainy and if the spring is dry with the wind in the north, both the spring and the summer are unhealthy ?* Is it because in the winter owing to the heat and moisture 15 the body assimilates its condition to that of the season, since it must necessarily, be moist and relaxed? When the body is in this state, the spring being cool congeals and hardens it owing to its dryness. The result is that women who are pregnant run a risk of abortion in the spring because of 1 This problem is clearly derived from Hippocr. de aere, &c., § ro ad fin. (Gundermann, p. 26, 14 ff.). 2 The sense requires 76 pev Cet, 6 dé kde for 6 pey (ei, rd de Kaet, This is clearly the reading which T.G. renders, fervet elenim illa, urit hic vehementins. 8 The source of this problem is Hippocr. de aere, &c., § 10 (Gunder- mann, p. 22, 25 ff.). B 2 860° PROBLEMATA 20 the inflammation and mortification caused by the dry cold, since the necessary moisture is not secreted, and the foetus in the womb becomes weakly and defective owing to the excess of cold; for children who are born at this season in fine weather become strong and receive nourishment in the womb. In the case of other persons—because in the 25 spring the phlegm is not purged away owing to its excess (as happens when the weather is warm), but congeals owing to the cold--when the summer and warmth succeeds, setting up violent liquefaction, humours form in those who are bilious and dry because their bodies lack moisture and are naturally parched ; but these humours are slight and so 30 such people suffer from dry ophthalmia. Those on the other hand who are phlegmatic are afflicted with sore throats and catarrh of the lungs. Women suffer from dysentery owing to their natural moisture and cold; while elderly persons are afflicted with apoplexy, when moisture being all set free at once overcomes them and solidifies owing to the weakness of their natural heat. 35 winds prevail and the autumn on the contrary is wet and characterized by south winds, headaches and sore throats and coughs occur in the ensuing winter and then terminate 860° in phthisis ?! - Is it because the winter finds a considerable amount of matter in the body and so it is a difficult task for it to solidify the moisture and form phlegm?? Conse- quently, when moisture is engendered in the head, it causes 5a feeling of heaviness, and if it is plenteous and cold, it causes mortification; but if, owing to its abundance, it does not solidify, it flows into the nearest region of the body,? and thus coughs are caused and sore throats and wasting. But why is it that if the summer and autumn are dry andi northerly winds prevail, this weather suits those who are 1o phlegmatic, and women?! Is it because in both cases * This problem is derived from Hippocr. de acre, &c., § 10 (Gunder- mann, p. 24, 29 ff.). * For phlegm see G. A. 725° 15 ff, and A. Platt’s note. * i.e, the throat and chest. * This problem is derived from Hippocr. de aere, etc., § 10 (Gunder- mann, p. 26, 3 ff.). Why is it that, when the summer is dry and northerly ro BOOK I. 1 860° nature tends to an excess in one direction, and so the season exerting its influence in the opposite direction establishes an equable temperament, and they are healthy at the time,' unless they themselves do anything which harms them, and, when the winter comes on, they are not in a moist condition, having heat in them with which to resist the cold ? 12 Why is it that a dry summer and autumn in which 15 northerly winds prevail is unhealthy for those who are bilious?? Is it because their bodily condition and the season have the same tendency and it is like adding fire to fire?* For the body becoming dry (the freshest * element in it becoming evaporated) and being overheated, dry 20 ophthalmia must necessarily ensue owing to solidification;° but because the remaining humours are full of bile ® and these become overheated, acute fevers must ensue caused by the bile, which is undiluted, and in some cases madness, where black bile is naturally present; for the black bile comes to the surface as the contrary humours are dried up. 25 (3. Why do they say that a change of drinking-water is unhealthy, but not a change of air? Is it because water becomes nutriment, with the result that it gets into one’s system and has an effect upon one, which is not the case with air? Further there are many kinds of water differing? intrinsically from one another, but not of air; this then ; may also be a reason. For even when we change our place of dwelling we continue to breathe practically the same ® air, but we drink different waters. It is, therefore, rae) ° 1 i.e. in the summer and autumn. 2 This problem is derived from Hippocr. de aere, &c., § 10 (Gunder- mann, p. 26, 5 ff.). 8 A very common phrase in Aristotle ; see Bonitz, s.v.,and cp. below, 861 21, 880% 21, &c. “ yduxis here means ‘sweet’ or ‘fresh’ in the sense in which water is ‘fresh’. 5 Reading oupmnges for ovvriées, the point being that the effect of a dry summer and autumn is to reduce the liquid matter in the body. T.G. evidently read cupmngées, since he renders dus humor consumi tur. ® Reading yodwdes for yoA@des. ‘T.G. renders residuo quod bilosum remansertt, 7 Reading Gigopa with Ap, T. G., and Bekker. ® Reading aire for the misprint ato. 860” PROBLEMATA probably a right opinion that change of drinking-water is unhealthy. Why is it that a change of drinking-water is more 14 unhealthy than a change of food? Is it because we con- sume more water than anything else? For water is found in farinaceous and other foods and whatever we drink consists mainly of water. Ww on 861° But why is a change of water unhealthy?! Is it because 15 every change also of season.and of age is liable to distur- bance? For extremities, such as beginnings and ends, are particularly liable to disturbance. So too foods, when they are different, corrupt one another ;? for some have only just entered the system, while others have not yet done so. Further, just as a varied diet is unhealthy (for the concoc- tion? is then disturbed and not uniform), so those who change their drinking-water are using a varied diet in what they drink; and liquid nourishment has more effect than dry food because it is greater in bulk and because the moisture from the foods themselves forms nourishment. ue | 10 Why does a change of drinking-water cause an increase 16 of lice in those who suffer from louse-disease?* Is it because, owing to the disturbance set up by the different water in those who frequently change their drinking-water, the unconcocted state of the liquid causes a moist condition, especially in that part where the conditions are suitable ? Now the brain is moist, and therefore the head is always the moistest part of the body (as is shown by the fact that hair grows there more than elsewhere),® and it is the moisture of this part which generates lice.® This is clear — or + T.G. here renders, Sed cur cibi et aguae mutatio gravis est? We should perhaps read Aca ri } (ray citiwy kai tod Datos) weraBod} voow dns } * The argument, which is somewhat condensed, appears to be as follows: It is a mechanical truth that the extremities of anything material (e.g. a plank of wood, cp. Aleck. 857° 27, &c.) are most liable to movement ; similarly changes of seasons and of a man’s age and alterations in diet imply a beginning and an end and are there- fore more liable to disturbance. * Reading ov pia ()) wéyis (Platt). * For the morbus pedicularis see H. A. 556° 27 ff, and D’A. W Thompson’s note, and Pliny, VV. H. xi. 39. , ® Cp. H.A. 658° 2. ® Cpcht cinesaia: BOOK I. 16 in the case of children; for their heads are moist and they frequently have either running at the nose or discharge of blood, and persons of this age suffer particularly from lice? 17 Why is it that from the rising of the Pleiads until the west wind blows those who suffer from chronic diseases are most likely to dic, and the old rather than the young? Is it because two things are fatal to life, excess? and cold? For life is heat, whereas this season has both the above characteristics, for it is cold, and winter is then at its height, the subsequent season being spring. Or is it because those who suffer from chronic diseases are in a similar con- dition to the old?* For the occurrence of a long illness is like premature old age, since in both the body is dry and cold,—in the one case owing to the time of life, in the other from disease.* Now winter and frosts constitute an excess of coldness and dryness; therefore to those who are in a condition where a very little will turn the scale, winter is like ‘ fire added to fire’ and so causes death. 18 Why is it that in marshy districts sores on the head are quickly cured, but those on the legs only with difficulty 76 Is it because the moisture, owing to the fact that it contains an earthy element, is heavy, and heavy things are carried ° downwards? Thus the upper parts of the body are cleared out‘ because the impurities are carried to the lower parts, and these become full of excretions which easily putrefy. 19 Why is it that, when a very dry summer follows after northerly winds have prevailed in the winter and the spring has been damp and rainy, the autumn is universally fatal, especially to children, while in other people dysentery and prolonged quartan fevers occur then?* Is it because, Le Gp Aash 77s * Cp. above, 859% 2, 3. BC pny Ani S432. A710 25— 7. 5 This problem occurs again in xiv. 6. ’ 6 Reading broywpei... troxexwpnkevat (cp. 909% 38, 39 and Bonitz, Arist. Stud. \v, p. 401). 7 Yt is doubtful whether éxxpira can mean this. The parallel passage go9* 38 reads ciirenra, ‘easily concocted’, which should probably be restored here. wer: ® Cp. Hippocr. de aere, &c., § 10 (Gundermann, p. 22, 18 ff.). 861° to ° 3° 35 861° 861 PROBLEMATA when there is a moderate amount of rain in the summer, the moisture boiling within us, which collected in the damp spring, is cooled and becomes quiescent? If on the other hand this does not happen,! children, because they are moist and hot, are in a state of excessive boiling, because they are not cooled; and anything which does not as it ro were? boil out in the summer, does so in the autumn. If the excretions do not cause death immediately, but settle round the lungs and windpipe—for they collect first in the upper part of the body, because we are warmed by the air, for it is owing to this that ophthalmia occurs before fever in an unhealthy summer—if then, as I have said, the 13 excretions in the upper parts of the body do not imme- diately kill the patient, they descend *® in an unconcocted condition into the stomach ; and thus dysentery is caused, because the moisture owing to its abundance is not dis- charged. If the dysentery ceases, quartan fevers arise in those patients who survive; for the sediment of the unconcocted moisture remains very persistently in the body 20 and becomes active, just like black bile. Why is it that, if the summer and the autumn have 20 been rainy and damp, the ensuing winter is unhealthy ?+ Is it because the winter finds the body in a very moist state, and also the change from great heat is violent and not a5 gradual,°® because the autumn as well as the summer has been hot, and so acute diseases are caused in some persons, if they have no rarity in their bodies (for in such persons the moist excretions tend to collect in the upper part of the body, because these parts provide room for them, whereas the lower parts differ in this respect)? Those then whose 30 flesh is solid do not allow of much excretion. When there- fore the excretion in the upper parts of the body cools (as happens in drunken persons when they grow cold), the above-mentioned diseases are engendered. On the other ons : a i r E i.e. if there is no rain in the summer, ? Reading oiov for dao. * The change from the singular dvéAy to the plural xaraSuivouoe can hardly stand and we should read xaruBaiver. ‘ This problem is derived from Hippocr. de aere, &c., § 10 (Gunder- mann, p. 24, 25 ff.). ovk €x mpocuywyijs is a very common Hippocratic term. BOOK I. 20 861° hand when fevers are set up in persons in whose bodies there is more rarity, the fevers caused by a large quantity of unconcocted moisture become burning fevers,! because in such people the humours are distributed more through the 35 whole body than in solid-fleshed people, and, when the flesh is contracted by the winter-cold, the humours being heated cause fever. For excessive heat in the whole body is fever, and, when it is intensified by the abundance of 8622 moisture already present there, it turns into a burning fever. 21 Why is it that when a large amount of vapour is drawn out of the earth by the sun, the year is pestilential? Is it 5 because it is necessarily a sign that the year is damp and rainy and the ground is necessarily damp? The conditions of life will then resemble those under which people live in a marshy district, and these are unhealthy. The body must then have in it an abundance of excretion and so contain unhealthy matter in the summer. 22 Why is it that those years are unhealthy in which small 10 toad-like frogs are produced in abundance? Is it because everything flourishes in its natural environment, and these frogs are naturally moist and so signify that the year is moist and damp? Now such years are unhealthy ; for then the body being moist contains abundant excretion, which is a cause of diseases. on 23. +Why is it that south winds which are dry and do not bring rain cause fever?* Is it because they cause alien moisture and heat * (for they are naturally moist and hot), and this is what causes fever, for it is due to the combined excess of moisture and heat? When therefore south winds blow without bringing rain, they engender this condition * in us, whereas, when they bring rain with them, the rain ne 1) ’ Kadoos is the remittent bilious fever which is epidemic in the Levant ; cp. Hippocr. de aeve, &c. /.c., Vet. med. 15, Aphor. 1248. 2 This problem is partly identical with that of Bk. xxvi. 50. The source is Theoph. de Ven/zs, § 5. ; 3 i.e. in the body. The parallel passage 946°5 reads €uroiovet TOS TMOpacly, 4 i.e. heat and moisture. 862° PROBLEMATA cools us. Now south winds from the sea are also beneficial to plants, for they are cooled by the sea before they reach 25 them; whereas blight is due to alien moisture and heat. Why is it that men feel heavier and weaker when the 24 wind is in the south?! Is it because moisture becomes abundant instead of scanty, being melted by the heat, and moisture, which is heavy, takes the place of breath, which 30 is light? Further, our strength is in our joints, and they are relaxed by south winds (as is shown by the fact that things which have been glucd together creak); for the viscous matter in the joints, if it hardens, prevents us from moving, whereas, if it is too moist, it prevents us from exerting ourselves. Why are people more liable to fall ill in the summer, 25 35 while those who are ill are more liable to die in the winter ?? Is it because in the winter, owing to the fact that the hot matter from its density becomes collected within the body and we suffer more through the excretions which solidify in us, if we cannot concoct them,® the commencement of the disease must necessarily be violent, and being of this 862” character it is likely to prove fatal? In the summer on the other hand, because the whole body is in a state of rarity and cool and too much relaxed for great exertion, there must necessarily be many commencements of disease owing to fatigue and to the fact that we do not concoct all that we 5 swallow (for summer is the season of fresh fruit); but such diseases are not so violent, and therefore yield easily to treatment. Why is it that deaths are particularly likely to occur 26 during the hundred days following each solstice? Is it because in each case the excess of heat or cold extends 10 Over this period, and excess causes disease‘ and death in the weakly ? * This problem occurs again in Bk. xxiv. 42 (945% 10 ff.), where it is more briefly treated. ‘The source is Theoph., of. ci¢., § 56. > Cp. below, chapter 28. ee movourres as a nominativus pendens and reading (duit) trav LLY KTA, CGprcsoee > €v Pa O Ft BOOK I. 27 27. Why is it that the spring and the autumn are unhealthy ? Is it because changes are unhealthy?! The autumn is more unhealthy than the spring, because we are more apt to contract disease when heat turns to cold than when cold turns to heat, and it is in spring that cold turns to heat and in autumn that heat turns to cold. 28 Why is it that illnesses are rarer in the winter than in the summer, but more often fatal??2 Is it because illaesses arise from slight causes in the summer but not in the winter ? For in winter we are in a better condition for concoction and at the very height of our health,® so that naturally illnesses which arise from more serious causes are them- selves more serious and more likely to prove fatal. We see the same thing in athletes and generally amongst those who are in a healthy condition; for they either are not afflicted with disease, or, if they are, they rapidly succumb, for they only become ill from some serious cause. 2g Why is it that in the autumn and winter burning fevers are more likely to occur when the weather is cold, while in the summer chills are most troublesome when it is hot? Is it due to the fact that of the humours in man the bile is hot and the phlegm cold? As a result, in summer the cold matter is set free, and being diffused in the body gives rise to chill and shivering; in the winter, on the other hand, the hot matter is overpowered by the weather and cooled. Burning fevers are more troublesome in the winter and autumn, because, owing to the cold, the hot matter collects within, and the fever is within and not on the surface; it is natural therefore that burning fevers should occur during this part of the year. This can be well illustrated by con- trasting those who bathe in cold water and those who use warm water in the winter; those who wash in cold water, though they feel chilled for a short time whilst they are wep, o59%0; : 2 The problem of chapter 25 is here rather differently stated and answered. : 4 3 There is no reason with the Teubner editors to doubt the correct- ness of the reading here. 862° o 35 862” PROBLEMATA actually washing, suffer no ill effects from the cold during 863° the rest of the day, while those who use hot water continue to be less able to resist the cold. For the flesh of those who wash in cold water becomes solid, and the hot matter collects within ; but the flesh of those who use warm water becomes rare, and the hot matter is diverted to the outside of the body.! In what does the virtue of a poultice consist ? Would it, 30 owing to its dissolvent action, set up perspiration and evaporation? ye How can the presence of an abscess be diagnosed? Is it 31 true that, if, when hot water is poured over it, a change takes place, there is an abscess, but none if there is no change ? 10 In what cases ought cauterization to be employed, and in 32 what cases the surgeon’s knife?? Is it true that wounds which have large openings and do not close up quickly ought to be cauterized, so that a scab may form? If this is done, there will be no festering. In what does the virtue of a remedy for stanching blood 33 consist? Is it because it has a drying effect and stops the discharge of excretions without * making a scab or causing decay of the flesh? If so, the wound must be free from inflammation and likely to heal up. For if there is no dis- charge, it will be free from inflammation, and being dry it will close up; whereas it will not close up as long as it is discharging moisture. Most remedies, therefore, for stanching blood are pungent, so as to cause contraction. When ought drugs to be employed and not the knife or 34 20 cauterization?* Ought drugs to be used for the armpits and groin? For sores in these parts are sometimes painful and sometimes dangerous after they are cut open. Fiat growths and those which project considerably and are - ore * Some manuscripts here add a sub-title dua Son@jpata (or SenyRa- Tixd, OF SonPnuatexad rpo3Arjpata) mpds Tacw. , * See below, chapter 34. * The Teubner text omits dev before écyapaduews. * Cp. chapter 32 above. BOOK I. 34 863° situated in parts which are venous and not fleshy, should be cauterized; but those which collect at an acute point and are not situated in solid parts of the body should be treated with the knife. 35 Why is it that, if one is cut with a copper instrument, 25 the wound heals more quickly than if the cut is made with iron? Is it because copper is smoother and so tears the flesh and bruises the body less? Or must we reject this explanation, since, if iron takes a better edge, the cleavage is easier and less painful? Yet even so copper has a medicinal power of its own,' and ‘in all things it is the beginning that is important’? and so the copper, by its immediate action* as soon as the cut is made, causes the 30 wound to close up. 36 Why is it that burns inflicted by copper heal more quickly than others? Is it because copper contains more rarity and is less substantial, and the more solid a thing is the more heat it contains? 37 ‘Is barley-gruel lighter and better for use in sickness than that made from wheat? For the latter commends itself to 35 some people who argue from the fact that amongst bakers 863° those who handle wheaten flour have a much better colour than those who employ barley meal,‘ and furthermore that barley is moister and that which is moister requires ° more concoction. ut is there any reason why barley should not have some qualities which make it more difficult of con- coction and others which make it more serviceable because of its lightness? For barley is not only moister than wheat, 5 1 Cp. 89027 and ALir. Ausc. 834> 30, where flower of copper is said to be prescribed for the eyes. For the preference of bronze or copper over iron in antiquity, see Dr. R. Caton in /. HS, xxxiv. (1914), p. 114, who quotes the scholiast on Theocr. ii. 36. ? Here the proverbial péyerrov apxy mavtis (cp. Soph. Ev. 183° 22, E. N. 10987, &c.) is used to emphasize the importance of the immediate application of the remedy, which is here supplied by the copper of the surgical instrument. 5 Reading as suggested by Bekker 1 ody et dvs. * Cp. Bk. xxi. 24, and xxxvili. 10. 5 Ruelle’s mAéovos Covons) does not give the required sense, T.G. renders concoctionem desiderat pleniorem, and Sylburg’s mA¢ovos (deira:) or something similar must be read. 863° PROBLEMATA but it is also colder, and porridge and any other food which is served to one who is in a fever ought to be such that it will provide him with a little nourishment and also cool him. Now barley-gruel has these qualities; for, because it is moist rather than substantial, it gives nourishment which 10 ig small in bulk and at the same time has a cooling effect. Why do purslane and salt stop inflammation of the 38 gums?! Is it because purslane contains some moisture? This is seen if one chews it or if it is crushed together? for some time; for the moisture is then drawn out of it. This glutinous matter sinks into the gum and drives out the acidity. For that there is an affinity between the disease 1s and the remedy is shown by the acidity; for the juice of purslane has a certain acidity. Salt on the other hand dissolves and draws out the acidity. Why then do lye and soda not have this effect? Is it because they have an astringent instead of a dissolvent action ? Why is it that fatigue must be cured in summer by baths, 39 in winter by anointing?* Is anointing employed in the latter case because of the cold and the changes which it causes in the body? For the fatigue must be got rid of by heat which will warm the body, and olive-oil contains heat. In summer, on the other hand, the body requires moisture, because the season is then dry and chills are not to be feared, because the natural inclination is towards heat. A sparing diet of solid food and a liberal indulgence in 2; liquid nourishment are appropriate to the summer, the latter being peculiar to summer, while the former is com- moner then than at other seasons; for indulgence in drinking is peculiar to the summer because of the dryness of the season, but a sparing diet is found at all seasons but is more 2 ° * This problem is repeated in Bk. vi. 9 (8871 ff.). afuwdia is generally applied to a scorbutic affection of the gums, swelling of the gums being one of the symptoms of scurvy; this can hardly be the meaning here, since salt would be the last thing to prescribe for scurvy. > The parallel passage (887° 3) reads ovvreOy for cvvOrac6y. The latter gives better sense and should be read in both passages. * The same problem is treated in almost identical words in Bk. v. 38; cp. Theophr. de Lassit., § 17. BOOK I. 39 863° general inthe summer; for then, owing to the weather, heat is engendered by food. 40 Why do some drugs relax the stomach and not the bladder, others the bladder and not the stomach? Is it 30 true that anything which is naturally moist and full of water, if it has medicinal properties, relaxes the bladder ? For it is there that the unconcocted moisture settles ; for the bladder is a receptacle for any moisture which is not concocted in the stomach; and such moisture does not remain there, but passes away without undergoing or causing any change. But anything which partakes of the 35 nature of earth, if it has medicinal properties, relaxes the 8647 stomach ; for it is to the stomach that anything of an earthy nature is carried, so that, if it has any motive power, it causes a disturbance in the stomach. 41 Why is it that some things affect the upper part of the stomach, hellebore for example, others the lower part, for instance scammony,' while others like elaterium? and the 5 juice of thapsia® affect both parts? Is it because some of the drugs which affect the stomach are hot and others cold, so that some of them, owing to their heat, as soon as they reach the upper part of the stomach are carried thence to the upper region of the body,* melting in particular® any- thing there ° which is most alien to them and least substan- tial; and if the drug be powerful or has been administered in a dose stronger than nature can withstand, it carries these liquefactions* and any excretions that there may be down into the upper part of the stomach, and by its heat stirring up the breath, which it engenders in great quantity, checks -~ ° 1 A species of convolvulus found in Asia yielding a resinous gum. 2 A drug deriving its name from its medicinal qualities (Hippocr. Acut. 383); according to Pliny (/V. //. xx. 1. 3) it was prepared from the wild cucumber. Cp. also Celsus, 5, 12 ; 6, 5. § The Thapsia Asclepium of Linnaeus; in large doses it was a violent poison and was so used by Nero (Pliny, J. //. xili. 22. 43) ; cp. also Theoph. /7. P. ix. 9. 1. pe Ope 4042 27, ; 5 If the text is sound, padwora pev is here used without any corre- sponding de. ® Reading raxeibev (W. D. R.) for kaxeiOev. ~ cd t as 7 radra, i.€. Ta aAAoTptorara Kai HKLOTA oupmeuKora, 864° PROBLEMATA their progress and causes vomiting? Drugs of a cold nature, 1; on the other hand, owing to their weight are carried down- wards before undergoing or causing any change and, borne thence, have the same action as those which affect the upper part of the body; for passing thence’ upwards through the ducts and setting in motion any excretions or liquefactions over which they prevail, they carry them with them in the same direction.2 Drugs which partake of both these kinds go and are a mixture of hot and cold, possessing both qualities, have both these effects, and are the composite drugs which doctors now make up. Why is it that drugs have a purgative effect, while other 42 things, though they surpass them in bitterness and astrin- gency and other such qualities, do not have this effect? Is it >; because the purgative effect is not due to these qualities but to the fact that they are unconcocted? For anything which, though small in bulk, owing to its excessive heat or cold is unconcocted and of such a nature as to overcome, and not be overcome by, animal heat, if it is easily dissolved ir 30 the two stomachs, is a drug. For when such drugs enter the stomach and become dissolved, they are carried into the vein by the ducts through which the food passes, and, not being concocted but themselves prevailing, they make their way out, carrying with them anything which gets in their way; and this is called purging. Copper and silver and 35 the like, although they are not concocted by animal heat, are not easily dissolved in the stomach. Oil and honey 864° and milk and other such foods have a purgative effect; but this depends, not on any quality which they possess, but on quantity ; for, if they act as a purge, they only do so when they are unconcocted owing to their quantity. For things can be unconcocted for two reasons, either because of their quality or because of their quantity. So none of the above- mentioned foods are drugs, because they do not purge owing to their quality. Astringency and bitterness and unpleasant odour are characteristic of drugs, because a drug is the or i.e. from the lower part of the stomach. i. €, cause vomiting, like the drugs which are of a hot nature. 1 * And therefore do not act as drugs. BOOK I. 42 864° opposite of a food; for that which is concocted by a natural process amalgamates with the body and is called a food ; but that whose nature it is to refuse to be overcome ! and which enters into the veins and causes disturbance there 10 Owing to its excess of heat or cold, this is of the nature of a drug. 43 Why is it that pepper if taken in large quantities relaxes the bladder, but if taken in small quantities affects the stomach, whereas scammony? if taken in large quantities relaxes the stomach, but if taken in small quantities and when it is old affects the bladder? Is it because each has more effect on one part of the body? For pepper promotes 1; urine, while scammony is purgative. Pepper therefore if taken in large quantities is carried into the bladder and does not dissolve in the stomach, but if taken in small quantities it is overcome and relaxes the stomach and acts upon it as adrug. Scammony, on the other hand, if it is taken in large quantities, is overcome to such an extent that 3, it is dissolved, and being dissolved it becomes a drug for the reason mentioned above;* but, if it is taken in small quantities, it is swallowed with what is drunk and passes into the ducts and is quickly carried into the bladder before it can cause any disturbance, and there by its own force it carries off all the excretions and liquefactions which are on the surface. When it is taken in large quantities, as has 25 already been remarked, owing to its strength it remains a long time in the stomach and effects an extensive purgation of the earthy element.* 44 Why do some cure by cooling the same inflammations which others bring to a head by heating them? Surely it is because the latter collect the inflammation by applying 30 external heat, the former by cooling the heat already present in the body. 45 Why is it necessary to change poultices? Is it in order that ° they may be more felt? For as,in things which we 1 j,e. which is not subject to the process of concoction. 2 t 864? 4. ® Cp. 2. 29, 30. ‘ ‘ Go 863° 35-864" es 5 Reading émws, with Richards, for ore ws. 645-25 (& 864° PROBLEMATA eat, that to which we have grown accustomed no longer 35 acts as a drug but becomes a food, so poultices lose their effect. Why does it promote health to reduce one’s diet and 46 865° increase one’s exercise? Is it because an excess of excretion causes disease, and this occurs when we take too much nourishment or too little exercise ? Why is it that drugs, and bitter and evil-smelling sub- 47 stances generally, have a purgative effect?! Is it because anything which is evil-smelling and bitter does not admit of concoction? Drugs therefore are bitter and evil-smelling ; for they are drugs because, in addition to being bitter, they do not admit of concoction and can cause motion; and if they are administered in too large doses, they are destruc- tive of life. But substances which are destructive of life even if given in small quantities are not drugs but deadly poisons. Nor again do we give the name of drugs to those 10 Substances which are not purgative through their natural qualities ; for indeed many foods have the effect of drugs, if taken in sufficient quantity—milk, for example, and olive oil? and unfermented wine; all these things, because they are not easily concocted, have a purgative effect on those by whom they are not easily concocted.’ For different things are easy or difficult of concoction to different people ; and so the same things do not act upon 15 every one as drugs, but particular things act upon certain people. For, generally speaking, a drug ought not only to be difficult of concoction, but also ought to have the power to produce movement; just as also exercises, whether external or internal, expel alien matter. Or Why is it that sweet-smelling seeds or plants promote 48 the flow of urine?* Is it because they contain heat and are ‘ This chapter is largely a repetition of chapter 42 in a slightly different form. 2 Cp. above, 864° 36. * Kadaiper Kai rovros and kaOaipet kal rovtovs are obviously variants both of which have come into the text. The next sentence shows that we should read dca 70 pat) etvae eUremra, vis ju) etrrenra Kadaipet Kal rors, * This problem with several additional lines is repeated in xii. 12 and xx. 16; the shorter version here given does not complete the BOOK I. 48 865° easily concocted, and such things have this effect ? For the 20 heat in them causes quick digestion,! and their odour has no corporeal existence; for even strong-smelling? plants, such as garlic, promote the flow of urine owing to their heat, though their wasting effect is a still more marked characteristic ; but sweet-smelling seeds contain heat. 49 Why is it that unclean and foul sores require to be a5 treated with dry, pungent, and astringent drugs, while clean, healthy sores require moist, porous? remedies? Is it because something must be drawn out from unclean sores, and it is foreign moisture which must be extracted? Now biting, pungent, and astringent substances have this effect, and the dry rather than the moist. Clean sores, on the 30 other hand, only require to skin over. 50 Why is it that sexual excess is beneficial to diseases caused by phlegm?* Is it because the semen is the secre- tion of an excrement and in its’nature resembles phlegm, and so sexual intercourse is beneficial because it draws off a quantity of phlegm-like matter ? Is it better to give the patient nourishment at first or 35 later?° Ought nourishment to be given at the beginning, so that the inflammation, when it sets in, may not find the patient already weak? Or ought the patient to be reduced at once? Or ought the following to be the treatment, namely, that the patient should first take nourishment in the form of draughts, since food of this kind is milder and 865° more readily swallowed and dissolved, and it is easier for a sick person to receive nourishment from this sort of food? For where ® the food has first to be acted upon in sense, and the additional matter (9079-12, 924 23-6) should probably be restored here. ee : 1 Newrives is here apparently used in its technical medical sense of ‘digest’, cp. Hippocr. Vet. Med. 16. MEW: 2 The parallel passages 9077 and 924” 21 read here ra uy evwdn for Ta OT L@O)). 3 Reading pavois (Monro) for povors. ris 4 Cp. iv. 16. ra should be read for the misprint 70 of the Teubner text. ; , 5 Apparently a new problem begins with this question. 6 Reading ov (Bussemaker) for ov. C2 865° PROBLEMATA the stomach,—namely, both dissolved and heated—these 5 processes cause pain to the body. Why is it that, in order to examine urine to see if it is 5! concocted, one must stop the flow of urine rather than continue to pass it? Is it because it is a sign of concoction if it is reddish in colour, and this is better detected if the flow is stopped? Or is it because anything that is liquid forms as it were a better mirror of its colour in a small than in a large quantity? For form is better discerned in a large quantity, but colour in a small quantity, in dew, for example, and drops of rain and tears on the eyelids. If urine, therefore, is allowed to flow it becomes greater in quantity, but, if it is checked, it takes on colour’ more readily ; and so if it has already taken on this character? by concoction, this can be better observed if the flow of urine is stopped and light thus refracted and a mirror formed. I ° ur Why should the flesh be made rare rather than dense in 52 order to promote health? For just as a city or locality is healthy which is open to the breezes (and this is why the 20 sea too is healthy), so a body is healthier in which the air can circulate. For either there ought to be no excrement present in the body or else the body ought to get rid of it as soon as possible and ought always to be in such a condition that it can reject the excrement as soon as it receives it, and be in a state of motion and never at rest. For that which 25 remains stationary putrefies (standing water, for example), and that which putrefies causes disease ; but that which is rejected passes away before it becomes corrupt. This then does not occur if the flesh is dense, the ducts being as it were blocked up, but it does happen if the flesh is rare. One ought not therefore to walk naked in the sun; for the flesh thereby solidifies and acquires an absolutely fleshy consistency, and the body becomes moister ; for the internal moisture remains, but the surface moisture is expelled, ° 3 * $c. TH Xpopara as the object of déxerat. * Reading with Bekker atréd rovodror. 3 This problem is repeated in v. 34 and is identical with the second part of xxxvii. 3. 67: must be emended to dia ri. Cp. 884% 26. BOOK I. 52 865° a process which also takes place in meat when it is roasted rather than boiled. Nor ought one to walk about with the chest bare; for then the sun draws the moisture out of the best constructed parts of the body, which least of all require to be deprived of it. It is rather the inner parts of the body which should be submitted to this process; because 3 they are remote, it is impossible to produce perspiration from them except by violent effort, but it is easy to produce it from the chest because it is near the surface. oe 53. Why is it that both cold and hot water are beneficial to chilblains? Is it because chilblains are caused by an excess 8662 of moisture? If so, the cold water thickens and hardens the moisture, while the hot water causes it to evaporate and enables the vapour to escape by rarefying the flesh. Why is it that cold both causes and stops chilblains, and heat both causes and stops burns? Is the cause the same in both cases, namely, that they cause them by setting up liquefaction and stop them by drying them up? on 55 In fevers liquid nourishment ought to be administered often and in small quantities! For a large quantity flows away and is wasted, but a small quantity taken frequently 10 sinks in and penetrates into the tlesh. For as the rain, if it comes down upon the earth in torrents, runs to waste, but, if it comes down in small quantities, merely moistens the ground ;” so the same thing occurs in fever patients. In irrigation, if the water is allowed to flow gradually, the channel sucks it up; whereas, if the same amount of water is allowed to flow all at once, it makes its way wherever it is directed. Next the patient ought to lie as still as possible, because fire also obviously dies down if one does not stir it. And he ought not to lie in a draught, because the wind stirs up the fire, and, being fanned, it becomes great instead of small. For this reason the patient ought to be well or 1 This and the following chapter are not, strictly speaking, problems, but descriptions of treatment. They were apparently extracted from some medical treatise with a view to being put into the form of problems, and this purpose was for some reason never carried out. 2 Placing a comma after povoy. 866° PROBLEMATA wrapped up,! because fire is extinguished if it is not 20 allowed to draw in air; and the garments ought not to be removed until damp heat is present, for the fire if exposed to the air dries up the moisture—just as happens also in nature.” In the case of intermittent fevers one must make prepara- tions beforehand by washing*® the patient and applying 25 fomentations to his feet,and he must rest well wrapped up, in order that there may be as much heat as possible in him before the attack begins. For a flame will not be able to burn where there is a great fire; for the great fire will absorb the little fire. Consequently a great fire must be prepared beforehand in the body; for fever has but little 30 fire in it, and so the great fire will absorb the little fire. In quartan fevers‘ the patient must not be allowed to get thin, and heat must be introduced and engendered in his body. Exercises must also be employed. On the day on which the attack is expected he must bathe himself and avoid sleep. A heating diet is beneficial, because a quartan 35 fever is weak; for if it were not so, it would not occur only every fourth day. For, mark you, where there is a great fice, a flame cannot burn; for the great fire attracts and 866° absorbs the little fire. For this reason it is necessary to engender great heat in the body, because fever has but little fire in it. The daily treatment consists in introducing® at one time heat and at another time moisture into the body. Some diseases are caused by heat, others by mois- ture ; those which are caused by heat are cured by moisture, 5 and those which are due to moisture are cured by heat, for heat dries up moisture. 2 Reading with Bonitz mepioreddéad@ for meporéddeo Oat, cp. kara- keia 8 |. 15, aroyvpvovcbe |. 21. * i.e. it is always the nature of fire to dry up moisture. 2 Reading ¢xhovovra with the majority of MSS., cp. below, 1. 33. There should be no comma after éxXovovra. * This chapter is clearly another version of the last part of the previous chapter (Il. 23-30 above). 8 Nak Sue It appears necessary to read eiodyew for eiguyovra, 866° BOOK II PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH PERSPIRATION 1 WHY is it that perspiration is caused neither when the breath is expanded nor when it is held in, but rather when 10 it is relaxed?! Is it because, when it is held in, the breath fills out the veins and so does not allow the perspiration to escape, just as the water in a water clock cannot escape if you turn it off when the clock is full?? But when the perspiration does come out, it does so in great abundance, because it has graduaily collected during the actual period? that it has been checked. 2 Why is it that the parts of the body that are immersed in hot water do not perspire, even though they are themselves hot?* Is it because the water prevents liquefaction, while perspiration is formed when matter which is not properly attached to the flesh ® is expelled by heat? on 3 Why is perspiration salty? Is it because it is caused by movement and heat which rejects any foreign matter in 2° the process by which nourishment passes into blood and flesh ? For such matter quickly separates, because it has no affinity with the body, and evaporates externally. It is salty because the sweetest and lightest part of the food is taken up by the body, while the unsuitable and unconcocted part is discharged. This when it is excreted below is called urine, in the flesh it is sweat ; both of these are salty for the same reason. we al 1 This problem is derived from Theoph. de Sud. 25, 26. 2 This comparison with the water clock was originally made by Empedocles; cp. de Respir. 473” 1-474° 5. * Reading airy (17) émAnyia (Bussemaker), 4 Cp. Theoph., of. ct. 30. This problem is cited by Athenacus (i. 44) as from the Physical Problems of Aristotle. ; ® Omitting with C® Y® 6 ckodver rHKeo Aa; this omission 1s supported by Theoph., Z. ¢., 6 d¢ idpas rikis ris €ore TOY oloy KaKas mpor@KoSopnpEerar rais cap£iv oray exxpivnrar ut TO Oeppdy. 5 From Theoph.,, of. cré. 2, 3. 866° PROBLEMATA Why is it that the upper parts of the body perspire 4 more freely than the lower?! Is it because heat rises upwards and remains there, and this carries the moisture 30 upwards? Or is it because breath causes sweat, and the breath is in the upper parts of the body? Or is it because sweat is unconcocted moisture. and such moisture resides in the upper parts because the process of its composition takes place there ? Why is it that sweat is produced most copiously if we 5 exercise the arms while we keep the other parts of the body in the same position?? Is it because we have most 3x strength in this region of the body? For it is in this region, which is nearest to the strongest part of us, that we hold our breath ; and we gain strength by violent exertion, and, having gained strength, we can hold the breath more 867° easily. Furthermore, we feel the effect of friction more in the arm® than when any other part of the body is rubbed; for it is by holding the breath that we get exer- cise, both when we are rubbed and when we rub. Why is it that sweat given off from the head either has 6 no odour or less than that from the body ?* Is it because 5 air circulates freely in the region of the head? That the head possesses rarity is shown by the fact that it produces hair. And it is those regions of the body and the substances of which they are composed through which the air does not circulate that are malodorous.° Why is it that those who take athletic exercise, if they 7 wrestle after a period of rest, perspire more freely than if 10 they wrestle continuously ?° Is it because the sweat collects while they are resting, and then the wrestling afterwards brings out this sweat? Continuous exercise, on the other hand, dries up the sweat, just as does the heat of the sun. é From Theoph., of. cit. 24, somewhat amplified. * This chapter is Theoph., of. czt. 34, cast in problem form. * sc. xetpi, which is inserted by Theoph., 2. c. * This chapter is an almost verbal transcription of Theoph., of cz¢. 9, in problem form. * Cp. 908° 20 ff. * This problem is derived from Theoph., of. cit. 31. BOOK II. 8 8 Why is it that one sweats more freely if one has not for a long time employed means to induce perspiration?! Is it because sweat is not caused by moisture alone, but is also due to the fact that the pores are opened wider and the body becomes porous? In those, therefore, who take no measures to induce perspiration the pores become closed up, whereas if they do take such measures the pores are kept open. g Why is it that, although the sun warms those who are naked more than those who are clothed, the latter perspire more freely ??_ Is it because the sun by burning causes the pores to close up? Or is it because it dries up the moisture? These processes are less likely to happen in those who are clothed. 10 Why is it that the face gives off the most perspiration ?° Is it because the sweat can find a way out through? parts which are particularly porous and moist? Now the head seems to be the source of moisture, and it is owing to the presence of copious moisture that the hair grows; and the region of the head is rare and porous, and so the sweat naturally finds a way out. 11 Why is it that one perspires most freely, not when the heat is applied all at once or when it is gradually diminished, but when it is gradually increased ?° For those who are in vapour baths perspire under these conditions more freely than if all the heat be applied at once. Is it because it is ; the presence of anything in proper proportions which produces each required effect, and so, if it produces this effect, its presence in greater quantity will not produce a greater effect, or will rather produce the contrary effect, for it is because a thing is proportionate ® that it produces a certain effect ?. For this reason then increased perspiration 1 The source of this problem is Theoph., of. cit, 22. 2 Cp. Hippocr. de aere, &c. 8 (Gundermann, pp. 15, 30 ff.). 3 From Theoph., of. c/t. 33; cp. below, chapter 17. + Omitting dé after dua (W.D.R). ; 5 Compare below, chapter 32; the source of both these problems is Theoph., of. ct. 28, somewhat amplified, ° Omitting ro after ro with most MSS. ~ or wv t 8678 PROBLEMATA is not induced as the result of greater heat; but because to each increment of heat there answers a different proportion, 35 and that which has already produced its effect produces no greater effect, increased perspiration is rather the result of successive additions of heat. For it is not the same cause which prepares the way and creates a favourable condition for a series of effects and then begins to produce the effect, but a different cause. So a small quantity of heat prepares the way and predisposes the body to perspire 867° better than a large quantity; but another and a greater proportion is required actually to produce the perspiration, but this does not continue to produce the effect which it originally produced, but must be followed by another application of heat different again in its proportions." Why does the sweat flow more freely if a scraper be 12 used than if it be allowed to remain on the body? Is it because the presence of external sweat induces cooling? Or is it because the external sweat forms a3 it were a lid over the pores and so prevents the movement of the internal sweat ? in Why is it that rue and certain unguents give the per- 13 spiration an evil odour?? Is it because things which 10 have a heavy scent, mixing with the excretory fluids, make the odour of these still more unpleasant ? Why do we perspire more on the back than on the front 14 of the body ?? Is it because in the front of the body there is an interior region into which the moisture is drained, but this is not the case with the back, but there the excretion of 5 moisture must be external? (It is for the same reason that we perspire less on the stomach than on the chest.) A further reason is the fact that the back and hinder parts hold the perspiration more than the front, because the latter become more cooled than the former. (This is the reason too why 20 the armpits perspire most readily and freely ; for they are least subject to cooling.) Further, the regions about the back are fleshier than those in front and therefore moister ; : Reading 17) ovpperpia for tis cupperpias. : Cp. Theoph., of. c/t., § 10. This problem occurs again in xx. ah Cp. Theoph., of. ezt., § 32. BOOK II. 14 867° and there is more moisture in the hinder parts, because the marrow in the spine causes considerable humidity. 15 Why is it that we do not perspire in those parts of the body on which we are lying? Is it because the area with which we come into contact with anything is hot and there- fore prevents the perspiration from passing forth, for it dries it up? Furthermore it is compressed, and pressure causes the blood to disperse, and, when this happens, the part tends to become cool. This can be illustrated from numbness, which is a condition due to cooling and is caused 39 by pressure or by a blow. is) fj 16 Why do those who are asleep perspire more freely ?! Is it due to the heat being driven inwards?? For the heat collects * inside and expels the moisture. 17 Why is it that one perspires most freely on the face, though it is far from being fleshy ?4 Is it because parts 35 which are rather moist and rare perspire freely, and the head has these characteristics? For it possesses an abun- dance of natural moisture; this is shown by the veins which extend from it and the discharges which it produces and the brain-fluid and the numerous pores. That there are numerous pores extending outwards is shown by the presence of the hair. The perspiration then comes not from 868* the lower parts of the body but from the head ; and so one perspires most readily and freely on the forehead, for it is the first thing below the top of the head, and moisture flows down and not up. mn 18 Why is it that those who are perspiring are apt to vomit 5 if they are cooled either by water or by air?’ Is it because 1 This problem is more fully dealt with in chapter 28; the source in both cases is Theoph., of. cz¢. 40. 2 The doctrine of dvriepioracts of heat and cold is very common in the Problems; cp. 875° 11, 888° 35, 906215, &c. It is a favourite doctrine of Theophrastus; cp. caus. fl. i. 12, 33 ii. 9,8; vi. 7, 83 de Lene, 74, &c. For dvterepioraos in sleep cp. de Sono 457" 2 and Professor leare’s note. * i, e. collects internally because it is driven inward by the external cooling which takes place in sleep. : * This problem is repeated verbally in xxvi. 2; cp. also above, chapter Io and note. 6 The source of this problem is Theoph., of. c//., § 38. 868° 10 or 290 25) PROBLEMATA the moisture when cooled ceases to move and collects together, whereas before it was not at rest because it was in a state of flux? Or is it because the breath which turns into perspiration by being cooled as it passes out, being cooled internally before passing out turns into moisture and attacking the body ! causes vomiting ? Why is it that sweat is given off from the head and feet 19 of those who are heated more freely than from any other part of the body? Is it because the part which is heated attracts the moisture to itself, and the moisture has nowhere where it can expend itself in these regions of the body, because they are bony, and therefore it finds its way out? Why do those who exert themselves perspire when they cease to exert themselves?? For since the exertion is the cause, they ought to perspire while they are exerting them- selves. Is it because during their exertion the veins, being inflated with breath, cause the pores to close up, whereas, when they stop, the veins contract, and so the pores become wider and the moisture finds an easier outlet? Or is it because during the exertion the motion expels air from the solidified moisture and, owing to the heat caused by the motion, the moisture becomes breath on the surface of the body ; while on the other hand, when the exertion ceases, the heat also stops at the same time, and then the moisture, which we call perspiration, is generated from the condensa- tion of the breath ? Is it more necessary to induce perspiration in the summer or in the winter?*® Is it not more necessary to do so at a time when, unless care be taken, the body would become too moist and in a dangerous condition? Ifso, it would be more necessary to perspire in the summer,‘ when a violent * We should perhaps read from Theoph., 2. ¢., mpoomeody (ro dvanvev- OTLKD TOTM) TrOLEL. _ * Reading with Bekker érav matowvrat. The same subject is treated in chapter 23 ; the source of both chapters is Theoph., of. cit., §§ 25, 26. * The same subject is treated in chapter 33; see next note. * Chapter 33 shows that perspiration is less necessary in the winter, because concoction then goes on naturally in the body, and this is also stated in 1,31 of the present problem. It therefore appears necessary to read Gépous here for yetparos. 20 21 BOOK II. ar 8682 change takes place in the body and the excretions are not thoroughly concocted. Again in the winter, since the body 30 is cool, it is also unnatural to perspire. It is clearly, therefore, more necessary to induce perspiration in the summer; for moisture of all kinds is then more apt to putrefy and should therefore be drawn off. This was the opinion of all the ancients and for the above reason. 22 Why is it that, although the body is ina state of continual 3; flux, and effluvia are given off from the excrements, the body is only lightened if it perspires?! Is it because the excre- tion in the form of effluvia is too little? For when liquid is transformed into air, much air is formed out of little liquid; for what is excreted in liquid form is more abundant. 868° The process of excretion, therefore, takes longer to begin, both for the above reason ? and because the excretion takes place through smaller pores. Further, the viscous and adhesive matter is expelled with the moisture, because it mingles with it, but it cannot be expelled with the breath; 5 and it is this thick matter in particular that causes pain. Therefore also vomiting lightens the body more than sweat- ing, because that which is vomited, being thicker and more substantial, carries away this viscous matter with it. Or is there a further reason, namely, that® the region in which the viscous and the adhesive matter is, is situated at a distance in relation to the flesh (and so it is difficult to make it change its position), but near the stomach? For it is engendered either in or close to it; and therefore it is difficult to get rid of it in any other way.* ~ 12) 23 Why is it that one perspires less during actual exertion than when one ceases?’ Is it because while one is exerting oneself one is engendering perspiration, but the process of engendering it is only complete when the exertion is ended ? This then is naturally the time when it is expelled from the body in greater quantities; for during exertion it is coming into being, but, when the exertion is finished, it actually This problem is almost verbally repeated in xxxvii, 1 and 2. i.e. because the moisture is more abundant. Reading #) cai or, cp. 965° 31. i.e. except through the bowels. 5 Cp. above, chapter 20. - 0 toe 868° PROBLEMATA 1s exists. Or is it because during exertion the pores of the flesh are closed, because the breath is held, but when the pressure of the breath is relaxed the pores open again? Consequently one perspires less when one is holding the breath. Why is it that perspiration is more copious not when one 24 is running and the body is in motion, but when one stops?" 20 Is it because the same thing happens as when flowing water is checked by the hand or by some other means and collects from every direction, and, when it is released, flows in greater volume than before ; so perspiration can be stopped by the breath—like water in a water clock—and also in the bladder, which keeps the moisture within. So too, while 25 there is considerable movement, the breath is cut off inside the body, and so the veins are distended, the moisture being unable to find its way out. The moisture then, being cut off, collects, and when the breath is relaxed comes all out at once, Why is it that, when one is drinking, one perspires less 25 if one eats something as well? Is it because the food sucks 30 up the moisture, as though a sponge were applied, and, just as a stream can be stopped by blocking up its channels, so by stopping® the pores through administering food it is possible toa large extent to prevent the flowing of moisture ? Why is that the feet of those who are nervous perspire 26 5 and not the face?* For it would be more natural that the feet should perspire only when the whole body perspires ; for the feet are the coldest region of the body and therefore least liable to perspire. Also in sickness physicians order the feet in particular to be wrapped up, because they are especially susceptible to cold and so readily give rise to 869° cold in the rest of the body also. Is it because nervousness does not cause a displacement of heat-- such as takes place from the upper to the lower parts of the body under the w 7 fs This problem is derived from Theoph., of. cé., § 29. ~ Putting a comma after peduuor and reading 16 émaBeiv. * The source of this problem and chapter 31 is Theoph., of. ciz., § 35. BOOK Il. 26 869* influence of fear! (hence the relaxation of the bowels in those who are alarmed) —but an increase of heat 2 such as is caused by anger? For anger causes the heat round the heart to boil up; and one who is nervous is affected not by fear or cold, but by an increase of heat.® en 27 How is it that one can become red in the face without perspiring?* Is it due to excessive warmth which results in the heat on the surface drying up the moisture in the face, whilst it liquefies the moisture in the feet because, though less than the heat on the surface, it is more powerful than the natural heat already existent in the feet? ~ ie) 28 Why is it that we perspire more when asleep than when awake ?° Is it because perspiration originates internally, and the interior parts of the body are hotter, and so the internal heat melts and expels the internal moisture? Or 15 is it because in all probability there is always something given off from the body, but it is not apparent because there is nothing with which it can come into contact and by which its escape can be arrested? That this is so is shown by the fact that the hollow parts of the body perspire continually. 29 Why is it that persons in vapour baths perspire more freely when it is cold?? Is it because the heat does not 20 find a way out, because it is surrounded by the cold, which prevents its exit, but collects internally, and, remaining there, dissolves the moisture in our body and engenders per- spiration from it ? 1 The distinction between dBos and dywvia is not always kept up in the Problems. They are distinguished here, but in »7, 8 and 903” 12 dyovia is piBos tus. In 90342 and 90578 cywria is said to be the result of aicxvvn. ; ® dywrvia is here described as being due to increase of heat; in 90371 it is ascribed to heat rising upwards, while in 90311 it is said to cause coldness. ; ae ’ Reading from Theoph., /. c., dia 10 paddov exOeppaiverOa for dia rd peAXoy, ‘ 4 The source of this problem is Theoph., of. cit., § 37. ° Cp, above, chapter 16 and note. Oe 6 Reading with Bonitz, of. c7t., p. 408, (ij) Ore. 7 Cp. above, chapter 11. 869° 25 869° On r5 PROBLEMATA Why is it that perspiration, even though it be less profuse, is more beneficial if it be induced by running naked rather than clothed?! Is it because exertion in general is better than non-exertion, and perspiration which is induced by exertion is better than that which is produced without exertion, and that which is due in a greater degree to exertion is better than that which is due in a less degree? Now perspiration involves more exertion if induced by running about naked: for a naked man cannot perspire at all unless he runs with considerable energy ; whereas, if he be clothed, owing to the heat produced by his garments, he soon perspires although he runs only moderately fast. Those too who run naked in the summer have a healthier colour than those who wear garments; for just as those ; who live in regions open to the air have a better colour than those who live in a stifling atmosphere,” so too a man, when he is as it were in a well-aired condition, acquires a better colour than when he is stifled and surrounded by consider- able heat, as he is more likely to be when he runs clothed. For this reason too those who sleep much have a less healthy colour than those who sleep a moderate amount; for a man who is asleep is in a stifled condition. Why is it that our feet perspire, but not our faces, when we are in a state of nervousness, whereas under ordinary conditions our faces perspire most and our feet least?? Is it because nervousness is a kind of fear connected with the beginning of an action, and fear causes a cooling in the upper part of the body; this is also why those who are nervous are pale-faced.* On the other hand they move and dance their feet about, thus resembling those who are taking exercise ; therefore they naturally perspire in those parts which they areexercising. Alsothey rub their hands together and bend and stretch themselves and keep jumping up and can never remain still; for they are eager for action, because the heat within them is collected in the region of the chest, which is one of the more substantial parts of the body, and : Cp. Theoph., of. cit., §§ 39, 40. > Cp. 865% 19-21. Cp. above, chapter 26. * Contrast 903? 3. 30 31 BOOK II, 31 869° this heat and the blood rushing thence through their whole body results in frequent and varied movement. But they perspire most in the feet, because these are being continually exerted, whereas the other parts of the body obtain rest in the changes of position and movement. 32 Why is it that in a vapour bath one perspires most freely 2° not when the heat is applied all at once nor when it is gradually diminished, but when it is gradually increased ?} For if the heat is gradually introduced into the vapour bath,” one perspires more freely than if the full amount were admitted at first. Is it because heat which is great from the beginning, finding the flesh on the surface dry, burns the 25 skin and bakes it hard, and the flesh when it is in this con- dition holds the perspiration within ?* Less heat on the other hand tends to relax and rarefy the flesh and as it were stimulates the internal moisture to separate itself and come forth. This condition being established, when more heat is gradually introduced and penetrates deep into the flesh owing to its rarity, it vaporizes the already softened humours 3° and separating those which are light expels them with the breath. 33 ‘Is it more necessary to induce perspiration in the summer or in the winter?* In winter does not the heat collecting within the body concoct and vaporize our internal humours, and so, because all or most of them are expended, there is 35 no need to supply an appropriate method of expelling them? In the summer, on the other hand, because the flesh is in a state of rarity, the heat escapes and our internal humours become less concocted and therefore need to be drawn off. For if they are allowed to remain, they putrefy owing to the season and cause disease; for anything that 8707 putrefies does so owing to heat that is not its own, whereas its own natural heat causes concoction. Consequently in 1 Cp. above, chapter 11 and note. ‘ 4 Reading erewmpepomevov yap Ceis) Ta muptarnpia [so also Richards]. The corruption, however, is probably more Berns and ereopepopevov perhans belongs to the previous sentence, Cp. 867° 29. 8 The sense demands oréye: for réyyet. ‘4 Cp. above, chapter 21 and note. 645-25 D 870° PROBLEMATA the summer the external heat prevails, and so everything within the body tends to putrefy ; but in the winter the 5 natural heat predominates, and so the winter does not cause putrefaction. Why is it that, whereas perspiration is due to internal 34 heat or else to heat attacking the body from without, yet we sometimes shiver while we perspire? Is it because, when owing to the internal heat the perspiration is expelled from a large area into a small space,' it collects* on the ro surface of the body and entirely blocks up the channels through which the heat circulates, and so shivering ensues ? Another reason is that the flesh becomes saturated and the heat escapes. On the other hand the external heat attacking the flesh at first rarefies it, and then the internal natural heat as it is given off® causes the shivering. 15 Why are hot sweats considered to be better than cold?* 35 Is it becauseall perspiration is the rejection of some excretion, and it is natural that a small excretion should become heated, whereas a more abundant excretion is less likely to do so, and so a cold sweat would be an indication of a copious excretion; consequently the disease, the presence of which a0 it indicates, is likely to last longer ? Why is it that, although perspiration is caused by heat, 36 we perspire less in front of a large fire?° Is it because, when the body is subjected to considerable heat, the ® humours are dissolved into vapour; or else we do not feel the moisture, because it makes its way out and quickly 35 dies on the surface ? Why is it that, though the sun heats us more if we wear 37 no clothing, yet we perspire’ more freely when we are ‘ i.e. from the whole interior of the body to the surface. * Reading cvoreAAdpevor (agreeing with (Spares supplied) for cvared- Aopevors. * Reading dzroxpivdpevov (W. D.R.); the middle droxpurdpevor in this sense Cannot be paralleled. ; Cp. 959° 25 ff., and Hippocr. de AZoré. i. 25. : Cp. Theoph., of. cit., § 28. ° Reading rvevpata (ra) typa. he problem here is the same as that of chapter 9; to give point to the question it is therefore necessary to read idpares (adXov) yivovra, the omission being due to the occurrence of the same word in the line above, BOOK II. 37 8708 clothed? To this we shall give the same answer as to the last problem.1 38 Why is it that, though brisk movements are generally regarded as more heating than slow movements, walking 3° up a steep hill, which is a slower movement, induces more perspiration and obstructs the breathing, as though it were more heating than walking down hill?? Is it because it is natural for weights to be carried downwards and unnatural for them to be carried upwards? Consequently the nature of the heat® which carries us along does not undergo any 35 strain when we are going down hill, but has to bear a con- tinual burden when we are walking up hill; and so it grows exceedingly hot by movement of this kind and causes more profuse perspiration and obstructs the breath. The bending, too, of the body involved in walking up hill contributes to 870° prevent the free passage of the breath by obstructing it. 39 Why is it that, although more perspiration is induced by additional clothing, it is not those who wear most clothing that perspire most? To this question we shall give the same answer as we gave above.‘ 5 40 Why is it that, although our bodies are drier in the summer than in the winter, we are more disposed to perspire in the summer? Is it because, our bodies being in a condition of rarity in the summer, not much natural heat is contained in them? This, therefore, dissolves the humours into vapour. In the winter on the contrary, our 10 bodies being externally in a dense condition, the con- siderable amount of natural heat enclosed within does not dissolve the humours into vapour. Moreover, in the summer we swallow liquid in large quantities, but in small: quantities in the winter. 41 Why is it that in healthy persons spontaneous perspira- tion is not considered to be as good as that produced by o 1 i.e. the case of a person exposed naked to the sun is parallel to that of a person in front of a large fire. 2 Walking down hill being a brisker movement and therefore ex Aypothesi more heating. : ‘ 2 5 rou Oeppow pious seems merely a periphrasis for ro Oe ppv. 4 Cp. above, chapters 36 and 37. D2 870” PROBLEMATA exertion? Is it because exertion continually drains off the superfluous moisture and makes the flesh drier, so that the hollows of the pores are healthy and there is no obstruction to the straining off of the heat? On the other hand the so-called spontaneous perspiration (which really occurs of necessity when the natural pores are disturbed by excessive moisture, and the heat! is not completely retained, but can still resist and expel the moisture) is rightly regarded as a sign of disease. For then, owing to the presence of a more than proportionate amount of moisture, a natural process of cooling takes place, and the flesh becoming saturated assumes a most unhealthy condition. 2 ° » or Why is it that in the winter perspiration is given off less 42 freely and we do not feel the same desire to induce it, although our bodies are moister in the winter? Do we perspire less, because in winter our humours are congealed and solidified to a considerable extent, and are consequently less easily dissolved? The reason why we do not think it necessary to induce perspiration in the winter is because the condition in which we are is a healthy one, and any one who induces perspiration dissolves and upsets that con- dition; moreover, by creating in the body a condition of 35 greater rarity than it ought to have, he expels and reduces the natural heat, so that it cannot so effectively resist the surrounding cold; also external moisture will more easily burst its way into the body when the pores are rarefied by process of perspiration. fe} 3 Reading 16 Ocpyov (Sylburg). BOOK™ HHI PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH THE DRINKING OF WINE AND DRUNKENNESS 1 Why is it that, though wine is hot, the drunken are 8714 unable to endure cold and are very readily attacked by pleurisy and similar diseases?! Is it because a large quantity of moisture, if it be cooled, forms a mass of cold and so overpowers the natural heat? For this is similar to what happens when, if a garment is soaked in cold water, the flesh beneath it also becomes cold. 2 Why is it that it is not those who are very drunk that are most troublesome in their cups, but those who are only slightly intoxicated?* Is it because they have neither drunk so little that they still resemble the sober nor so 10 much that they are in the incapacitated state of thcse who have drunk deep? Further, those who are sober have more power of judgement, while those who are very drunk make no attempt to exercise their judgement; but those who are only slightly intoxicated can still exercise their judgement because they are not very drunk, but they exercise it badly because they are not sober, and they are ready to despise some of their neighbours and imagine that they are being slighted by others. tr 3 Why is it that those who drink slightly diluted wine suffer more from the after effects than those who drink wine absolutely unmixed?* Is it because owing to its lightness diluted wine penetrates better into more numerous and narrower parts of the body than unmixed wine, and so is less easy to get rid of? Or is it because those who drink unmixed wine drink a less quantity, because it is impossible 20 to drink more, and vomit more readily ? Furthermore un- 1 This problem is more fully treated in chapter 6. “ Cp. below, chapter 27. This problem is referred to by Plutarch (Quaest. Conviv. iii. 8. 1) as Aristotelian. ° Cp. chapters 14 and 22. 871° PROBLEMATA mixed wine, being hotter, causes concoction in other things and in itself; whereas watery wine has the opposite effect. Why is the semen of drunkards generally infertile? Is it 4 because the composition of their body has become full of 25 moisture, and the semen is fertile not when it is liquid but when it has body and consistency ?? Why do drunkards tremble, and more so the more they 5 drink unmixed wine ?? Now wine is heating; but trembling is chiefly due to cold, and so those who are chilled tremble 30 very much. Yet many people before now, whe have taken unmixed wine as their only form of nourishment, have been seized with such violent trembling as to throw off those who were trying to hold them down; and when they wash in hot water, they have no perception of it. Is it because trembling is due to cooling, and cooling takes place either when the heat is driven within by external cold, as happens 35 in winter, or when the natural heat is extinguished either by its opposite or by lapse of time, as in old age, or by the excess of extraneous heat which is caused in that which is exposed to the sun or to a blazing fire? This occurs also in those who take unmixed wine. The wine, being hot, 871” when on mingling with the proper heat of the body it exceeds it in power,® quenches the bodily heat; and the heat being thus extinguished and the body cooled, trembling ensues. But there is also another process of cooling differing 5 from all those described above;* namely, when the matter whereby the heat in anything is fed, is removed, and, as a result, the heat dies down. This can be illustrated in the inanimate world from the lamp; for when the oil is expended, the light goes out ; and in living beings old age 10 and long, wasting diseases have a similar effect. For when that which feeds the heat is removed or diminished, the result is that the heat fails;*° for heat is fed by moisture, ‘ Cp. G.A. 7655. This problem is referred to as Aristotelian by Athenaeus (x. 692°), * Cp. below, chapter 26. Reading, with Bonitz and Richards, imepreivn tH Suvdpet. Splnee in 871% 33-8, ° Reading 5) (W.D.R.) for dé, and placing a colon after catapisews. * Reading ékNeimeww for éxdvew with Bonitz, op. cit., p. 408; cp. |. 16 below. BOOK MITAs 871° not, however, by any kind of moisture but by that which is smooth and fat.!_ In those, therefore, who are suffering from the diseases mentioned above and in those who are growing old, when moisture of this kind becomes corrupted and changed (becoming harsh and dry instead of smooth and 15 oily), as a result the heat fails. A proof of the above is afforded by the treatment applied to those who are wasting to death; for, whenever they have any nourishing liquid administered to them, the result is that their vitality? is revived, which implies that their bodily dissolution is due 20 to the lack of such a substance. The same cause seems to Operate in those who drink unmixed wine. For the wine, being warm, co-operating with the heat already naturally present in the body, tends to use up the supply already present in the body for the natural heat ; consequently some drunkards become dropsical, others rheumatic, whilst in others the stomach is affected. For the other humours in them are harsh, and what they imbibe, being soft, does not acquire consistency owing to the weakness of the natural heat. Their heat is weak because the matter in which it is still contained is itself weak; like a fire fed by reeds, which, 30 because its material is weak, is weaker than a wood-fire. is) 5 6 Why is it that, though wine is hot, the drunken are unable to endure cold and are very readily attacked by pleurisy and similar diseases?* Is it because a large quantity of moisture, if it be cooled, forms a mass of cold, and so overpowers the natural heat? Now the moister 35 anything is the hotter it is by nature, as is shown by the fact that external agencies cause heat but do not cause liquefaction; but where there is less heat, it is clear that either the heat or the moisture is failing too quickly, and so, cold humours only being left, it is natural that the 8727 drunken should be colder and show the usual symptoms of chill. 1 Reading iow, suggested by Bekker, for Acton. af 2 Reading, with Richards, ro (wrixdy for 70 de omrkoyv, and omitting the stop after cvpBaiver. 3 A fuller treatment of the topic of chapter 1; cp. also Hippocr. de Morb., § 26. 872° PROBLEMATA Why is it that children, who have a hot temperament, 7 are not fond of wine, although the Scythians and all who are courageous are fond of wine because they have a hot 3 temperament? Is it because the latter, though they are hot, are also dry (for this is the natural condition of a man), whereas children are hot and moist? Now fondness for drink is due to a desire for moisture ; and so their moist condition prevents children from being thirsty, for desire implics a lack of something. Why is it that men are more sensitive to salty and bad 8 ro Water when they are drunk than when they are sober?! Is it because that which is like and similarly constituted is unaffected by its like, but opposites are very sensitive to opposites? A drunken man then has sweet liquids in him (for such seems to be the nature of wine), and so is more 15 sensitive to bad liquids; but the sober man has harsh and salty liquids in him, and so, when his food becomes con- cocted, the excretory humours come to the surface and these are unaffected by their like* and cause the man in whose body they are to be similarly unaffected. Why is it that to those who are very drunk everything 9 seems to revolve in a circle, and as soon as the wine takes hoid of them they cannot see objects at a distance, and so 20 this is used by some as a test of drunkenness? Is it because the vision is continually disturbed by the heat of the wine? It makes no difference then whether it is the vision that is disturbed or the object seen; for the result is the same in producing the above-mentioned effect. And since the vision of drunken persons is often mistaken about objects near at 2s hand, it is only natural that it should be even more so in looking at distant objects. So the latter are not visible to them at all, while objects near at hand are not seen in their proper places, but appear to revolve ina circle and not to be near or far, because, firstly, the circular motion makes it less possible for the sight to be directed towards distant objects ; for it is difficult to do two contrary things at the 1 Cp. below, chapter 19. ? i.e. salty and bad water. BOOK Ill. g 872° same time.! Now the movement of the sight in a straight 30 line * towards the distance is strong, but the circular move- ment of the vision is restricted to the area implied by its name. For the above-mentioned reasons then the vision does not travel to a distance. Secondly, if it could travel to both near and distant objects,* it would not see them, for the next moment the near or distant object at which it was looking in the same direction would fail, and, if it did so, 35 the eye could not see it. The circular movement is due to the natural constitution of the sight; for it is a cone,® the base of which is a circle, and, moving in this circle, the sight always sees the same thing,® because it never fails, but it is 872° deceived as to its position, because it never directs the same glance upon it; for just the same thing would happen whether the object moved in relation to the eye or the eye in relation to the object. 10. Why is it that to those who are drunk one thing at which they are looking sometimes appears to be many?’ Is it because, as has already been remarked,* the vision is dis- 5 turbed, with the result that the same glance does not rest on the same object for any length of time? Now that which is seen differently at the same time appears to exist later in time; for that which is seen is seen by contact with the vision, and it is impossible for several objects to be in contact with the same thing at the same time. But because the intervening time, during which the vision comes into 10 contact with and passes away from the object seen, is imperceptible, the moment during which it has been in contact and passed away seems to be one and the same; and so when several glances come into contact with the same object at the same time, the objects seen appear to be 1 j,e. the sight cannot travel simultaneously straight forward and in a circle. 2 Reading, with Bonitz, én’ evdeias popd for emOupia opodpa. + Omitting ré before éeyyts. Reading amoXeiroy (Richards). Cp. below, g11” 5. Reading ravré for rotro: T.G. renders rem quidem percipit eandem. Cp. below, chapter 30. ewin 2, er ornn b 872 15 20 35 PROBLEMATA several, because it is impossible for the glances to be in contact with the same! thing at the same time.’ Why is it that those who are drunk are incapable of II having sexual intercourse?’ Is it because to do soa certain part of the body must be in a state of greater heat than the rest, and this is impossible in the drunken owing to the large quantity of heat present in the whole body, for the heat set up by the movement is extinguished by the greater surrounding heat, because they have in them a con- siderable quantity of unconcocted moisture ? Furthermore the semen is derived from food and all food is concocted, and those who are satiated with food are more inclined for sexual intercourse. This is why some people say that with a view to the sexual act one ought to take a plenteous midday meal but a light supper, so that there may be less 5 unconcocted than concocted matter in the body. Why is it that sweet wine and unmixed wine and mead * 12 if drunk from time to time during a drinking bout make men more sober? And why do those who drink from large vessels become less drunk?° Is the reason in all cases the same, namely the repression® of heat on the surface of the body? For drunkenness takes place when the heat is in the region of the head. Why is it that, though that which is sweet tends to rise 13 to the surface, if any one who is already drunk takes a sweet draught the wine which he has drunk before is concocted and causes less discomfort? Is it because that which is sweet is both soothing and adhesive (which is the reason why it blocks up the pores), while that which is bitter has a roughening effect? The latter makes it easy for the heat 1 Reading ratrod for tadra. * sc. and yet produce different sensations. Reading with K® xpévoy for tpdrov. ° Cp. below, chapter 33. * There is no exact equivalent for xuxedy, which was a mixture of wine, barley, cheese, and honey. * This second question and the suggested solution are repeated in chapter 25, and the two passages can be emended from one another. ° Reading xatdxpovors from 874» 12, which gives much better sense, because, as is shown in the next clause, sobriety depends on the heat of the wine being kept out of the head. BOOK IIL. 13 872° to rise, but the sweet draught keeps it in by blocking up the pores; and it has already been remarked! that drunken- 873° ness is due to the upper parts of the body becoming heated. Furthermore sweet wine is odourless, but bitter wine is not, and any odour oppresses the head. 14 Why is it that wine which is mixed but tends towards the unmixed causes a worse headache the next morning than entirely unmixed wine?? Is it because unmixed wine is composed of heavy particles and so does not find its way into the pores of the head, which are narrow, but only its power, namely its odour and heat, reaches the head? Diluted wine on the other hand, being mixed with water, which is light, itself penetrates to the head and having body, as well as much of the power of unmixed wine, is much less easily 10 concocted; for moist things are most difficult of all to concoct, and actual substances are more difficult of concoc- tion than mere effects. Nn 15 Why is it that those who do not take physical exercise are better able to drink themselves into a condition of drunkenness, and throw it off more easily, than those who take such exercise? Is it because those who have excre- tions and moisture in their bodies are more inclined to pass 15 urine? This enables them to drink and afterwards to be relieved of the effects, because much vinous moisture does not remain in them. ‘Those who take no exercise are moist and full of excretions ; but those who do take exercise are dry, and so the vinous moisture penetrates into their 20 body, and its impetus immediately checks the flow of urine, and the moisture remaining afterwards behind forms a weight in the body. 16 Why has wine the effect both of stupefying and of driving to frenzy those who drink it? For these are contrary states, the frenzied being in a state of excessive movement and the stupid in a condition of too little move- ment. Is it true, as Chaeremon says, that 25 Wine mingles with the temper of the drinker ?* Tien. 63Os 2 Cp. chapters 3 and 22. 3 Fr, 16 (Nauck’, p. 787). 873" PROBLEMATA It therefore has the opposite effect not on the same but upon the unlike, just as fire dries up some things but liquefies others, but does not have both these effects on the same things—for instance it melts ice, but hardens 30 salt. So wine, being in its nature moist, excites the slow and makes them quicker, while it enervates the quick. Therefore some of those who are naturally of a melancholic temperament become entirely enervated as the result of a drunken debauch. For just as a bath makes supple those who have a well-knit and hard frame, while it relaxes those 35 who are supple and moist, so wine has this effect, acting as an internal bath. Why is it that cabbage stops the ill effects of drinking ? 17 873° Is it because its juice is sweet and has a cleansing effect (and so doctors use it to purge the bowels), while in itself it is cold? This is shown by the fact that doctors use it in cases of acute diarrhoea, boiling it thoroughly and draining off the juice! and letting it cool. In those who are suffer- 5 ing from the after effects of drinking the effect of the juice of cabbage is to draw off the internal humours, which are vinous and unconcocted, into the stomach, whilst the cabbage itself remains in the upper part of the stomach and cools the body. As the body cools, the light humours are carried into the bladder. Thus since the humours through- 10 out the body are expelled by these two methods and it becomes cool, the ill effects of drinking naturally vanish ; for wine is moist and hot. A further result of the humours being drawn downwards and expelled is that breath is thereby carried down into the body, and it is only from there that breath can be carried from the wine into the 15 head and cause stupor and headache. But if the breath is carried downwards and the body cooled in the manner mentioned above, the pain of the headache is relieved. For the headache is due to a seething and to inflammation as it dies down; but it is more painful than drunkenness, because the latter drives men out of their senses, but the headache 20 causes them pain when they are in full possession of 1 Reading dmoyvNilovres. 8 X BOOK III. 17 873° their wits. Just as those who are ina fever are delirious rather than in pain, but feel pain when they are relieved of the fever and recover their senses; for just the same thing happens with headache and drunkenness. 18 Why is it that watery wine is more apt to cause vomiting than water and than unmixed wine? Is it because anything 2; that tends to rise to the surface and is unpleasant to the taste is most likely to cause vomiting? Now wine has the effect of repression ;' while water is light and not un- pleasant, and, therefore, being light® it quickly penetrates downwards, but, not being unpleasant, it does not cause heartburn. Now excessively diluted wine is not light enough to percolate through quickly, and because it has 30 a little wine in it, it is unpleasant ; for it disturbs the sense of taste by setting up two kinds of movement, one pro- duced by the wine and the other by the water, both of which make themselves felt. But the proper mixing of wine does away with the taste of water and gives the wine a soft taste, which makes it pleasant to drink. But watery wine, being unpleasant to the taste, has a tendency to rise, and anything which does this is apt to cause vomiting. ee or 19 Why is it that men are more sensitive to salty and bad water when they are drunk than when they are sober? 874? Is it because anything which has an unpleasant taste is more perceptible to those who feel no desire, but is not noticed by those who feel desire? A man therefore who is in a state of lacking something * resembles one who feels a desire, and the sober man is in this condition; whereas the drunken man is satiated. 20 Why is it that to those who are very drunk everything 5 seems to revolve in a circle, and as soon as the wine takes hold of them they cannot count objects at a distance, and so 1 Cp. 872» 29 and note, and 874? 12. 2 Omitting kai otk andes, which has clearly come in from the previous line. } 3 The same problem is discussed in chapter 8. 4 Reading évdeds for jdews with Bonitz (of. czt., p. 409); Cp. 950% 14, EE NGIYIO210, 1153" 1. 8742 PROBLEMATA this is used by some as a test of drunkenness?! Is it because the vision is continually disturbed by the heat of the wine? The same thing then happens to those who are drunk as when an object appears double if one puts it? close to the eye. For it makes no difference if you move the eye instead of * putting the object close to it, and whether the movement is within the eye or outside it; for the effect on the vision is the same in both cases. The result will be that the object seen appears not to be at rest, and more so if it is at a distance (for it has less hold upon the vision when the latter is extended toa distance); and this near 15 movement * causes a still greater variation at the farthest point to which the eye reaches ; and if the vision is moved violently and unevenly ° up and down, it has still less hold upon the distant object. Now anything which is extended to a distance moves in a circle, masts,° for example, and objects suspended; and so the same thing happens to the vision owing to its weakness, as though it were actually projected to a distance. It makes no difference whether it 20 is the vision which moves or the object seen; for the effect on the appearance of the object is the same. I ° Why is it that, when a quantity of wine is drunk at once, a7 the stomach becomes drier, whereas it ought to be rendered moister by the additional liquid? Is it because the stomach has no action upon a large amount of liquid swallowed at once, but it goes unaltered to its proper place (and the proper place for unconcocted liquid is the bladder), whereas the stomach acts upon a small quantity and concocts it, so that it remains in the stomach and makes it moist ? to or Why is it that those who drink wine properly diluted 22 suffer more from the after effects than those who drink unmixed wine?’ Is it because diluted wine, being light, finds its way into more parts of the body (just as it pene- * The same problem is the subject of chapter 9 and the treatment of it is partly identical. * Reading bo@y (ri) ris (Richards). Reading uy (W. D.R.) for per. i.e. the movement set up in the eye as an effect of drunkenness. Reading avwpadés for duahas. Reading icroi for dvoroi with C2 Ya, " Cp. chapters 3 and 14. 3 4 5 6 BOOK III. 22 874° trates into clothing), and is more difficult to expel (water 30 by itself being of a thinner consistency but easier to expel)?! Or is it because the amount of unmixed wine which is drunk is less because of the impossibility of drinking a large quantity, and there is more liability to vomiting? Moreover unmixed wine concocts everything else as well as itself.2 23 Why is it that death ensues from the drinking of un- 35 mixed wine in large quantities by one who is already in a lean condition? On the other hand, those who are addicted to drinking, if they are not in a lean condition, often become dry from drinking a large quantity at a time; for both wine and life* seem to be of the nature of hot things, whereas death is a process of cooling. Is it because 874° death by drinking resembles death by hemlock, the natural heat being gradually extinguished? But the process is different in the two cases; for hemlock by its coidness congeals the moisture and heat, whereas wine by its own heat parches up the natural heat. So just as a small fire is 5 extinguished by a large blaze and by the heat of the sun, so too the heat in the body is extinguished by that in the wine, if the latter surpasses it in strength. X 24 Why are the drunken more easily moved to tears? Is it because they become hot and moist, and so they have no command over themselves and are affected by trifling 10 causes? 25° (Why is it that sweet wine and unmixed wine and mead if drunk from time to time during a drinking bout make men more sober? And)* why do those who drink from 1 This doctrine is quoted as Aristotelian by Plutarch, Quaest, Conviv. Vi. 9. 3+ 2 Omitting raird & éori mpdBAnpa, which is not translated by T.G. and probably introduced a further explanation ; cp. 885” 3 and Prantl, op. Ctt., P. 354. : rhe : 3 ov ¢yv in the Teubner text is a misprint for ro ¢npv. 4 It is obvious from zdvrwy (1. 12) that several alternatives are offered in the statement of the problem. The problem is clearly a repetition of chapter 12 and we must restore é.a ri (6 yAukus Kat 6 ikpatos Kai 6 kuxewy peta€d Siamivdpevor ev roils mdros viper mocovory ; Kal Ota 76) troy peOvaKovrat KTA. 874° PROBLEMATA large vessels become less drunk? Is the reason in all cases? the same, namely the repression of heat ;* that is to say, on the surface of the body? For drunkenness takes place in the region of the head. (Why is it that those who drink much unmixed wine fall 25° asleep easily ?)* Is it because to induce sleep warm moisture 1g must be present, for it is easily concocted? Butifno moisture is present, or‘ only a little, or moisture which is difficult of concoction, sleep does not come on. Therefore men become sleepiest when they are fatigued and after meat and drink, owing to the heat. But sleeplessness afflicts the melancholic and those who are in a high fever,® the former because the moisture in them is cooled, the latter because 20 there is little or no moisture in them; these facts must clearly be looked to as the causes of sleeplessness in these two © cases. Why do drunkards tremble, and the more so the more 26 they drink unmixed wine?? Now wine is heating, and trembling is chiefly due to cold; and so it is prin- cipally those who are chilled that tremble. Yet many a5 people before now who have taken unmixed wine as their only form of nourishment, have been seized with such violent trembling as to throw off those who were trying to hold them down, and when they wash with hot water they have no perception of it. Others who live in this way,$ ’ Reading 4 maytwyr for mavrav yap 3 cp. 872> 28. ® Reading 7 kardkpovots (tov Oeppod), rovréativ ; cp. 872% 29. * It is clear that i) dre Sei mpds rods Umvous krd. begins the solution of a new problem the title of which has fallen out. T.G. begins this new problem with the words, Cur vinolentis somnus oriri nequeat ? But the fact that drunkenness often induces sleep rather than prevents it and the arguments contained in the solution point to some other question. That inserted above seems to be the most applicable, since, as has been already shown, unmixed wine is hot and easily concocted. * Reading (i) dAtyn (Bonitz). ° rois peywdas mupias is untranslatable and a participle appears to have fallen out; the sense must be either that given above or else ‘those who indulge in strong vapour baths’, which seems to be the meaning of mupia in de Part. Anim. 65191. T.G. renders vehementer aestuantes. _ © Reading éxdarepov (Richards) for érepoy. " The same problem is treated, and partly in identical words, in chapter 5. * i.e. who drink much unmixed wine. BOOK Ill. 26 874° but also undergo massage and take meat as part of their diet, have been stricken with apoplectic seizures: these are less subject to trembling, because they are unable to move, 3o but they suffer from violent pain and an inability to rest. Trembling is due to cooling; for, as has been remarked, it is those who are chilled who suffer from it and the very old, the cause being in the former their cold condition, in the latter their age. Wine, on the other hand, is very 35 heating ; so that it ought to have the opposite effect. Is there any reason why the same effect should not be produced by contraries working in a different manner? For example, burning! is caused both by frost and by heat, when the frost collects the heat in one place. Thus there is a sense in which the same condition is produced ? both by 875* contrary causes and by the same cause. Now trembling is due to lack of heat,—not, however, of any kind of heat, but of natural heat. Heat perishes either by dying down or by being extinguished ; it is extinguished by its con- traries, cold and moisture, and it dies down either through lack of material, as lamps do when they have no more fuel or oil, or under the influence of external heat, as the fire goes out in the sunlight and lamps when they are exposed to the fire. Those then who are chilled tremble because the heat in them is extinguished by the cold. This is why the pouring of hot water over a person makes his hair 10 bristle; for the cold being enclosed within and being compressed * causes the hair to stand on end. The cold- ness of one who is beginning to suffer from fever is due to alike cause. In old age the heat dies down because the material which feeds it fails; for moisture is the food of heat, and old age is dry. Now it is because their own 1; heat dies down that drunkards tremble and any others in whom this effect is produced by wine; but they do not do so in the same way as those who tremble from old age, but there is, as we saw, a third way in which the heat is om 1 Groxaiew is regularly used both of ‘ burning off’ and of ‘frost-bite’. 2 Reading cuyuPaiver (Y*). 3 For the doctrine of dvrerepiatacts cp. 867” 32 and note. 4 Reading with Bonitz (of. cét., p. 409) Enpév for Wuxpor; cp. de long. et brev. vit. 466% 22,14. T.G. renders senectus autem sicca est. 645-25 E 875° PROBLEMATA destroyed. For when too much wine is taken, the heat 20 being considerable in the body! extinguishes or weakens our own heat, in which our strength consists ; for trembling arises when the motive power loses control over that which it moves, just as the extremity of a long and large piece of wood trembles if one has not a good hold? upon it, and this happens because either that which is being held is too large or that which is moving it is too weak. So, when the 25 heat is extinguished (for heat appears to be the cause of motion in animals), the natural control of the body is lost. That this condition is induced in drunkards and the aged by a process of cooling is proved by the fact that the trembling is unaccompanied by chill. Why is it that one who is slightly intoxicated is more 27 troublesome in his cups than one who is more drunk and 3°than the sober man?? Is it because the sober man exercises his judgement properly, whereas one who is quite drunk, because his senses are blocked up, being unable to resist the heaviness which oppresses him, cannot exercise his judgement at all, and, this being so, he is not trouble- some in his cups? But he who is slightly intoxicated uses his judgement, but, owing to the wine which he has drunk, he uses it amiss, and so is troublesome in his cups. He is 5 like Satyrus of Clazomenae, who was given to abuse, and so when he was defendant in a lawsuit, in order that he might speak to the point and not abuse his adversary, they stopped up his ears, so that he might not hear anything and become abusive ; but as his adversary was finishing his speech, they uncovered his ears, and he, hearing a few words at the end of the speech, could not restrain himself and began to revile him, because he could use his senses 4° but could not use his judgement aright. ww on 875° Why is it that men do not become drunkards by being 98 addicted to sweet wine, which is pleasanter to the taste ? Is it because sweet wine possesses a flavour other than : Putting the comma before, instead of after, év TO T@pari. * Reading eykparés (Richards). * This problem has already been discussed in chapter 2. BOOK Ill. 28 that of wine?! He then who is addicted to sweet wine will be a lover of what is sweet rather than of wine. 875° 29 Why is it that drunkards take a particular delight in 5 30 31 the warmth of the sun?? Is it because they need concoc- tion? Another reason is the fact that they are cooled by the wine; which is also a reason why apoplectic seizures and torpidity very readily occur after drinking. Why is it that drunkards when looking at a single object sometimes see several objects?* Is it because the sources of vision (like the whole head) are disturbed internally by the wine, and, this being so, the vision of the two eyes cannot meet at the same point, but as it were moves to different parts of the object seen; consequently the object appears to betwo? The same thing happens if one presses one eye from below;* for this disturbs the source of its vision, so that it no longer falls upon the same point as the other eye. This then is an external disturbance, while that caused by wine is internal; but there is no real difference, the effect being the same whatever the cause of the disturbance. Why is it that the tongue of those who are drunk stumbles?° Is it because, just as the whole body staggers in drunkenness, so also the tongue staggers and stumbles and cannot articulate clearly? Or is it because the flesh of the tongue is spongy? It therefore becomes saturated and swells up, and when this happens it is more difficult to move, Owing to the thickness caused by its increased bulk, and it cannot articulate distinctly. Or is it because, just as we cannot speak under water through lack of air, sO we cannot speak when we take liquid into the mouth? So in a state of drunkenness we cannot articulate because the tongue is surrounded by a large quantity of moisture ; for a stumbling speech is due to inability to articulate. Or is it because in drunkenness the mind is affected and stumbles? If the mind is in this condition, it is only 1 i, e. its sweetness predominates over its vinous quality. * Cp. chapter 32. 3 Cp. chapter Io. (Go, Eero SaCpasssu7: E2 i fe) = 5 bh ° 875° PROBLEMATA 30 natural that the tongue should suffer likewise; for the mind is the source of speech. This is why, apart from drunkenness, if the mind is affected, the tongue is atfected also, as for example in those who are frightened. Why is it that drunkards and those who have to do 32 35 with the sea delight in the sun?! Is it because drunkards require concoction and at the same time certain parts of their bodies have become cooled? This is why apoplectic seizures and torpor follow after drinking. Those who have to do with the sea like the sun because they live always amid moisture. Why is it that those who are drunk are incapable of 33 having sexual intercourse ?? Is it because to do soa certain part of the body ought to be in a state of greater heat 876° than the rest, and this is impossible in the drunken owing to the large quantity of heat in them; the heat therefore caused by the movement is extinguished, being heated by the surrounding heat? Or is it because for sexual inter- course the lower parts of the body must be heated, whereas wine naturally rises upwards and so creates heat in the upper parts and withdraws it from the lower parts? Also people are least inclined for sexual intercourse after food and are recommended to take a heavy midday meal and a light supper with a view to it, for the heat and moisture move upwards when the food is unconcocted and down- wards when it is concocted ; and the semen is formed from concocted food. ‘Those who are fatigued emit semen during 10 Sleep,* because fatigue is a moist and hot condition; if therefore the excretion takes place in this part of the body, the result is that semen is emitted during sleep. This also occurs for the same reason in certain forms of illness,> and likewise in those who are frightened and in the dying. ° 4 ose 15 Why is it that the young wet their beds more, when 34 they are drunk, than the old? Is it because they are hot and moist, and so the excretion which collects is abundant, : Cp. above, chapter 29. ‘ ? Cp. above, chapter II. An instance of the doctrine of rip émi rip. sCpyv ° Namely in phthisis ; cp. 88496, Hea eae BOOK III. 34 876" because the body does not expend the moisture, and so it overflows; but as they become older, the body owing to its dryness absorbs the excess of moisture? Or is it because the young are more inclined to sleep than the old? Con- 20 sequently, without their being aware of it, the flow of urine finds its way out while they are asleep, before they can wake up, whereas the old are aware of it, just as they are more alive to any external movement than the young. This is confirmed by the fact that the young themselves wet their beds most when they are most sound 25 asleep. 35. Why is it that oil is beneficial against drunkenness and sipping it enables one to continue drinking? Is it because it promotes the flow of urine and so prepares a way for the liquor ? 876° BOOK IV PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH SEXUAL INTERCOURSE Wuy is it that one who is having sexual intercourse, and also a dying person, casts his eyes upwards, while a sleeper casts them downwards? Is it because the heat going out in an upward direction makes the eyes turn in the direction in which it is itself travelling, whereas during sleep the heat collects in the lower part of the body 35and so inclines the eyes downwards? The eyes close because there is no moisture left in them. Why do the eyes and flanks of those who indulge too fre- quently in sexual intercourse sink very noticeably,’ though the latter are near and the former far from the sexual organs? Is it because these parts co-operate very noticeably in the effort made in the act of coition, contracting at the time 876° of the emission of the semen? It is from these parts then in particular that any easily liquefied nourishment which is present there is squeezed out by the pressure. Or is it because these parts become overheated and waste away most, and sexual intercourse operates through heat, and those parts are most heated which are moved in the act 5 of coition? Now the eyes and the parts about the buttocks noticeably co-operate in the sexual act; for it is impossible to emit the semen without drawing the buttocks together and closing * the eyes, for the buttocks by their contraction press out the semen (just as the liquid can be expelled from the bladder by the pressure of the hand), while the bringing to- to gether of the eyelids presses out the moisture in the brain. ' Cp. de Gen. Anint. 747° 16. * Unless rév dpOadpov kata3dyvTwy here means merely ‘closing the eyes’ as is implied by cuvayey, (1. 10), there will be a direct con- tradiction with 876" 32, 33-. The alternative is to emend xutaB\Oévrov to dvaBAnOevrwy. l’latt omits yy) as having come from the previous line. I 2 BOOK IV. 2 876? That the eyes and the region near them have considerable influence in procreation is shown by the fact that childless and fruitful’ women alike try the experiment of anointing them, thinking that strength must pass by this way into the semen. These two parts, the fundament and the eyes, are always in all persons full of fatness; and, because they 15 co-operate in the act of coition, they share in the heat which it engenders and are made lean thereby, and much of their substance is excreted into the semen. For unless a part of the body is fat, the heat will not melt it properly, nor will it do so if the part is fat but does not co-operate in the sexual act, as is the case with the stomach. (The kidneys, however, have more sensation in sexual intercourse 20 than other parts of the body because of their nearness to the organs employed.) Moreover, the mere passage of the semen through these parts, which is quite perceptible by these parts, is sufficient to make them lean; for its proximity takes away something without adding anything to them. : 3 Why is it that both those who indulge in sexual excess and eunuchs, who never do so, alike * lose their sharpness 25 of vision? Is it because in the former owing to their desire, and in the latter owing to their mutilation, the upper parts of the body become drier than they ought to be, and this is most noticeable in those organs which have delicate work to do, such as the eye? So when the moisture is drawn away downwards, the upper parts become dry. It is quite obvious that sexual intercourse 30 has this effect. In eunuchs the legs swell and the bowels are easily relaxed, which shows that the moisture has moved downwards, 4 Why is it that man alone grows hair on the face and body when he begins to be capable of sexual intercourse, whereas this does not happen in the other animals which have hair? Is it because on coming to maturity the characteristics of animals change to their opposites? For 35 ‘ Gyovev should perhaps be read for yovipor. * Reading dyoiws with some MSS, 876° PROBLEMATA the voice becomes deep instead of shrill, and they become hairy instead of bare; it is clear therefore that animals which are hirsute from birth ought to become bare and not continue to be hirsute when they begin to secrete’ semen. But this is not so, because animals which emit 877% semen become drier and rarer, conditions which are favour- able to the growth of hair. This is shown by the fact that hair does not grow on scars, for scars are of a close texture and not rare; nor does hair grow upon women and children, both of whom are moist and not dry. ; Why is it that having the feet bare is prejudicial to 5 sexual intercourse? Is it because the body, when it is about to have sexual intercourse, ought to be warm and moist internally ? This condition is attained during sleep rather than when one is awake; and so emission of semen takes place readily and without effort during sleep, but requires exertion in those who are awake. When the to body is moist and warm, the feet are even more so; as is shown by the fact that the feet of those who are asleep are warm, being in this condition simultaneously with the interior of the body. But bareness of the feet has the opposite effect of causing dryness and cold. So since it is either difficult or impossible to have sexual intercourse when the feet are not warm, bareness of the feet must 1s necessarily be prejudicial to the performance of the sexual act. Why is it that man is more languid after sexual inter- 6 course than any other animal? Is it because in proportion to his bulk he emits more semen than any other animal ? But why does he do so? Is it because man digests his food with less effort and is naturally moister and hotter 2o than all the other animals? His moistness then creates an abundance of semen, while his heat creates a natural condition favourable to it; for the semen must be moist and hot as long as it is kept in the body. Why is it that, whereas sexual intercourse takes place 7 by means of heat, and fear and death have a cooling effect, 25 yet semen 1s sometimes emitted by those who are frightened BOOK IV. 7 877° and by the dying?! Is it because, though some parts are cooled, others become somewhat warmed, since they already have their own heat and receive additional heat from the parts which are cooling? So that, though such persons are growing cold, the emission of semen is due not to cooling but to the simultaneous heating. Observation proves this to be so in those who are frightened; for the blood leaves 30 the upper parts of the body, and the lower parts become moist, and the bowels and bladder are relaxed. Thus under the influence of fright the heat makes its way downwards, and at death it travels upwards from below, and, because it creates a state of moisture by its warmth, it causes the emission of semen. 8 Why is it that one ought not to have sexual intercourse 35 Or vomit or sneeze or emit a deep breath, unless one is in a turgid state? Is it because if we are not in a turgid state, we are in the condition of plants torn up from the earth with which something which does not belong to them is torn up also, or of which some part is torn off and left in the ground? Now anything which ought to be removed, but of which a part is detached and remains 877° behind, will cause trouble for a long while. And if one disturbs something external to oneself, this will cause trouble, because it is not in its proper place; and this is what will happen if we do any of the above-mentioned things when we are not in a turgid state. 9 Why is it that one can have sexual intercourse more 5 readily when fasting? Is it because the ducts of the body are emptier in those who are fasting and full in those who are full? In the latter case they prevent the moisture from passing through into the semen. ‘This is seen to be the case with the bladder; for when it is full it is impossible to have sexual intercourse readily.’ io Why is it that the young, when they first begin to have 10 sexual intercourse, feel loathing after the act for those with whom they have had intercourse? Is it due to the fact 1 Cp, 8764 13. ? Cp. 878” 33-5. 877° PROBLEMATA that the change caused in them is great? For they are only conscious of the ensuing feeling of discomfort, and so avoid those with whom they have had intercourse as being the cause of this feeling. Why is it that those who are continually on horseback 11 are more inclined for sexual intercourse? Is it because owing to the heat and movement they are in the same condition as during sexual intercourse? So as growth takes place with increasing age in the region of the genital organs, these parts become enlarged. Since then they are always in this state of movement, their bodies become open-pored and in a condition which disposes them for 20 sexual intercourse. or Why is it that when sexual powers begin to be present 12 the flesh has an unpleasant odour which is not present in men or women before puberty?! Is it because uncon- cocted matter always has a worse taste—being more acid or salty or bitter—and a more unpleasant odour, while concocted matter has a pleasant, or less unpleasant, taste 25 and a more agreeabie, or less disagreeable, odour? This is clear from an observation of the whole vegetable and animal world. If the properly concocted matter is re- moved, that which is left is unconcocted,—for instance in ashes, the sweet portion having been consumed, the dust which remains is bitter, and similarly perspiration is salty. 30 Now the natural heat concocts the semen, which though small in amount is very strong, being a large quantity in a concentrated form.? When, therefore, it leaves the body, the latter usually becomes languid and cold; and so the juices in it are subject to less concoction, since the pores are opened owing to the excretion of the semen. Conse- quently the perspiration of adults is saltier and has a more unpleasant odour than that of children, because it is uncon- cocted; and if their natural condition is such that the residue® of their perspiration has an unpleasant odour, " Cp. below, chapter 24, and Theoph. de Odoribus, § 7. > i.e. the semen, though small in quantity, is concocted from a large amount of nourishment, cp. 87929, Io. * i.e. what is left when the moisture in the perspiration has evaporated. w or BOOK IV. 12 877° it is still more evident in such persons, and particularly? in those parts, such as the armpit,? in which it is especially evident in other people also. 13. Why is it that we regard the creature which is born® 878* from our own semen as our offspring, while that which is produced from any other part of us or from any other excretion is not looked upon as our own? For many things are produced by putrefaction, even from semen. Why then is that which resembles us claimed as our own, while that which is alien to us is not so considered? For 5 either all or none ought to belong to us. Is the reason that, in the first place, what is produced from the semen is born from what is our own, but that which is produced otherwise originates from something which is not ours, namely, from what is purged or excreted from us? In a word, nothing in a creature procreates another creature except the semen; and that which is harmful and evil, and also that which is alien, is not claimed by anything as its 1° own; for it is not the same thing to be part of a thing and to be alien to it and other than it and evil. Now our excretions and putrefactions are not our own but are other than us and alien to our nature. For all things that grow in the body must not be considered as belonging to the body, for even boils grow on it and these are removed and cast forth. In a word, all things that are contrary to nature 15 are alien to the body, and many of the things that grow there are contrary to nature. If therefore the semen is the only thing in us from which a creature can be born, we should be right in regarding as our own offspring that only which is produced from the semen. Moreover any- thing else which is produced from the semen, as for instance, when it putrefies, a worm, or the so-called monstrosities, 20 when there is corruption in the womb, are not to be reckoned as offspring. In a word, anything which is pro- duced from corruption is no longer produced from that which is our own but from that which is alien to us, like 1 The Teubner text wrongly prints pad\tora for padtora. 2p. 867» 19. ; 3 The Teubner text wrongly prints yévyta for yevnrat. 878" PROBLEMATA that whith is generated from excretions such as ordure. That all such things are produced from corruption is 15 proved by the fact that what is generated from uncorrupted semen is of such a nature as to resemble that from which the semen came, a horse being born from a horse and a man from aman. And! we do not value the semen in itself or everything that is being completed in the process of coming into being (for it is sometimes moisture and a mere mass 30 and flesh which is coming into being),* because it has not yet its true nature but only so much of its nature as is implied in the fact that it is so disposed as to produce some- thing resembling ourselves; and nothing even of this kind can be produced from corrupted semen. For these reasons we do not regard as our offspring that which is produced either from anything else in us except the semen, or from the semen when it is corrupted or fails to achieve perfection. 35 Why are people less able to have sexual intercourse in 14 the water? Is it because in water none of those things liquefy which liquefy with heat—lead, for example, or wax? Now the semen obviously liquefies with heat, for it does not liquefy until it is warmed by the friction. Fishes, however, have sexual intercourse without friction. 878> Why is it that sexual intercourse is the most pleasant of 15 all things to animals, and is it so of necessity or with some purpose in view? Is it pleasant because the semen comes either from the whole body, as some declare,’ or not from 5 the whole body but only from the area over which all the ducts of the veins extend? The pleasure then of the friction * being similar in both cases, the sensation extends as it were over the whole body. Now the friction is pleasant, since it involves the emission of vaporous moisture enclosed unnaturally in the body ; but the act of generation Reading Kal avro bé (Richards). i Reading in Il. 28-30 wepavdpevov (kat yap vypoy Kat dyKos Tes Kat ope ylyverat more), Out KTA. l a is the Hippocratean doctrine denied by Aristotle in G.A. 72003 th * For this meaning of xvnopds, see G..A. 72334 and A. Platt’s translation. BOOK IV. 15 878° is an emission of similar matter for its natural purpose. It is pleasant both of necessity and because it has a purpose to in view,—of necessity, because the way to a natural result is pleasant, if it is realized by the senses; and because of its purpose, namely, the procreation of animal life. For it is the pleasure more than anything else which incites animals to sexual intercourse. 16 Why is it that sexual excess is beneficial in some diseases caused by phlegm?! Is it because it involves the emission of an excretion, and so a considerable amount of excreted matter is rejected with it, and phlegm is an excretion? _ 5 17. Why does sexual intercourse cool and dry the stomach ? Does it cool it because the heat is expelled in coition? Coition causes dryness, because, as the heat goes out, the moisture * is vaporized and finds its way out as the body cools, while at the same time the heat caused by the act of 20 copulation has a drying effect. 18 Why are those whose eyelashes fall off accounted lustful ? Is it for the same reason as that for which the bald also are so accounted?* For the eyelashes and the hair of the head really belong together. The reason is that all the con- genital hair which does not increase as a man gets older, falls off owing to lustfulness. For the hair of the head and the eyebrows and eyelashes are congenital hair; and of these the eyebrows alone sometimes grow thicker with advancing years (the reason for this has been stated else- where),* while the hair of the head and the eyelashes both fail from the same cause, viz., that lustfulness cools the upper 30 parts of the body which are deficient in blood, and so this portion of the body does not concoct any of the nourish- ment, and the hair not receiving any nourishment drops off. nN ur 19 Why is it that those who wish to pass urine cannot have sexual intercourse ?° Is it because the ducts become full? 1 This problem has been already treated in i. 50. 2 It seems necessary to supply 1o vypév here as the subject of * €€arpicerat. 3 Cp. G. A. 783° 27 fi. ‘ This appears to be a direct reference to P. A. 658° 19, 20. ® Cp. 877° 6-8. 878° PROBLEMATA 35 Now that which is full of moisture cannot admit any more moisture- Why is it that varicocele prevents both man and any 20 other animals which suffer from it from procreating their species? Is it because varicocele is due to a displacement of breath, and this is why it is beneficial to melancholic diseases? Now sexual intercourse also is accompanied by 879° an emission of breath.’ If therefore a rush of breath makes its way along when sexual intercourse is taking place, it fails to impart movement to the semen? and the latter becomes cold; consequently it enfeebles the erection o* the penis. Why do those who have sexual intercourse usually 21 5 become languid and weaker?* Is it because the semen is an excretion from the whole body,* and so the com- position of the body, like the harmony of a building, is disturbed by the loss of any portion of it—if, for example, all the blood * or any other component part of it is removed ? So important is that which the body loses in sexual inter- course, being indeed formed from a large amount of nourish- io ment though itself small in quantity,® just as a cake is made from wheaten flour. Why is it that the penis is greatly distended in those who 22 have sexual intercourse at a time when they desire to pass urine? Is it because, owing to the ducts being full of moisture, the semen, passing out through a narrower space, swells the bulk of the penis and lifts it up, for it is situated close to the ducts. 13. What is the cause of the erection and swelling of the 23 penis? Are there two reasons, first, that it is raised by a weight applied behind the testicles, the latter acting as the fulcrum, and, secondly, that the pores become full of ' For the semen is bypiy mvevparddes (cp. 878% 8). * i.e. the breath passes into the vein instead of helping in the emission of the semen, * This problem is almost identical with that of chapter 6, but there man is compare with other animals. * Cp. 878> 3 ard note. > Omitting 7 before wav with T. G. © Cpe 87731! BOOK IV. 23 879° breath ? Or does its bulk become greater from the increase of the moisture and its change of position, or from the formation of moisture? Now very large objects are less 20 easily moved, because the weight is farther away from the fulcrum.! 24 Why is it that those who have sexual intercourse or are capable of it have an evil odour and what is called a hircine smell, whereas children do not?? Is it because, as has already been said,? in children the breath concocts the moisture and perspiration, whereas the perspiration of 23 grown men remains unconcocted ? 25 Why is it that in summer men are less capable of sexual intercourse and women more so?‘ As the poet says, Men, when the artichoke blooms, are weaker and women more wanton.® Is it because the testicles hang down lower then than in the winter, and they must be drawn up if sexual intercourse 30 is to take place? Or is it because hot natures collapse in summer when the heat is excessive, but cold natures are invigorated ® by it? Now a man is dry and hot, but a woman is cold and moist ; consequently a man’s strength is impaired, but a woman’s force is invigorated, its deficiency 35 being compensated by its opposite.’ 26 Why is it that some persons find pleasure in submitting to sexual intercourse, and some take pleasure in performing the active part, and others do not? Is it because each form of excretion has a region in which it is naturally secreted and, when an effort is made, the breath in finding its way 879° out causes the excretion to swell and expels it ; for example, urine collects in the bladder, food from which the moisture has been extracted in the bowels, tears in the eyes, mucous matter in the nostrils, and blood in the veins? Similarly 5 the semen collects in the testicles and penis. In those whose ducts are not in a natural condition, owing cither 1 And in this case the object is not large and is therefore easily moved. 2 Cp. above, chapter 12. ° Cp. 87722 ff. * Cp. below, chapter 28. ; ; 5 Hesiod, Of. 582, 586. 6 Reading 6adXovow (Richards). tf i.e. heat. 879 2 3 or ie) on ° PROBLEMATA to the blocking up of the ducts leading to the sexual organs (as in the case of eunuchs or other victims of sexual disable- ment) or to some other cause, all such moisture collects in the region of the fundament; for it is by this way that it passes out of the body. That this is so is proved by the contraction of that part in sexual intercourse and the wasting of that region of the body.’ If therefore through wantonness a man has a superfluity of semen, it all collects there; and so, when desire comes upon him, the part in which it is collected desires friction. This desire may be due to diet or to the imagination. When desire is stirred from any cause, the breath collects and secretion of this kind flows to its natural place. If the secretion be thin and full of air, when the breath finds its way out the desire ceases (just as the erection in boys and older persons some- times ceases without the discharge of any moisture) ;? and the same thing happens, if the moisture dries up. But if neither of these things occurs, the desire continues till the one or the other of them takes place. But those who are effeminate by nature are so constituted that little or no semen is secreted where it is secreted by those who are in a natural state,* but it collects in this part of the body. The reason of this is that they are unnaturally constituted ; for, though male, they are in a condition in which this part of them is necessarily incapacitated. Now incapacity may involve either complete destruction or else perversion; the former, however, is impossible, for it would involve a man becoming a woman. They must therefore become perverted and aim at something other than the discharge of semen. The result is that they suffer from unsatisfied desires, like women; for the moisture is scanty and has not enough force to find its way out and quickly cools. When it finds its way to the fundament only, there is a desire to submit to sexual intercourse; but if it settles both there and in the sexual organs, there is a desire both for performing and 1 Cp. chapter 2. ; : : : : _ Enclosing @omep ... éxxpOévros in a parenthesis and reading MavovTal, Oray Te KaTAaTBETO KT. > i.e. els dpyers Kat aidsia, cp. above, Il. 5, 6. Bi er peas ees * ie. €v trois mepl riy edpar. BOOK IV. 26 879° submitting to the sexual act, and the desire for one or other is greater as more semen is present in either part. This condition is sometimes the result of habit; for men take a pleasure in whatever they are accustomed to do and emit the semen accordingly. They therefore desire to do the 35 acts by which pleasure and the emission of semen are pro- duced, and habit becomes more and more a second nature. For this reason those who have been accustomed to submit to sexual intercourse about the age of puberty and not before, because recollection of the past presents itself to 880 them during the act of copulation and with the recollection the idea of pleasure, desire to take a passive part owing! to habit, as though it were natural to them to do so; frequent repetition, however, and habit become a second nature. All this is more likely to occur in the case of one who is 5 both lustful and effeminate. 27 Why is it that those who desire to submit to sexual intercourse feel a great shame about confessing it, which they do not feel in confessing a desire for meat or drink or anything of that kind? Is it because the desire for most things is necessary and its non-satisfaction is sometimes fatal to life, but sexual desires proceed from something beyond mere necessity ? ms fe) 28 Why is it that men are more inclined for sexual inter- course in the winter and women in the summer?? Is it because men are hotter and drier in their nature, and women moister and cooler? In men therefore during the winter the moisture and heat® are sufficient to cause the impulse (and it is moisture and heat which give rise to the production of the semen), whereas in women the heat is less and the moisture is congealed owing to the lack of fire. But in summer in women‘ the heat is well propor- tioned, whereas in men it is more than sufficient ; for the excess dissolves much of their strength. For this reason ~ 5 1 Omitting d¢ after da; the sentence otherwise has no principal verb. 2 Cp. above, chapter 25. 3 j,e. the natural heat and the moisture of the season. ‘ Reading rou 8€ Oépous tuis pev ore: X* reads cor for ody. 645-25 F 8807 PROBLEMATA 20 also children are thinner during the summer ; for it is a case of ‘ fire added to fire’.! Why is it that those who are hot by nature, when they 29 are strong and well nourished, if they do not have sexual intercourse are often oppressed? by bile, which makes its way down in a very bitter condition, and a salty phlegm is 25 engendered, and their complexion changes? Is it because 30 35 880° some excretion always comes away with the semen? (Wherefore also the semen of some men who emit a large quantity of excretion * is said to smell of the water in which fish have been washed.‘) So when they have sexual inter- course, this excretion comes away with the semen and so causes no inconvenience; but if they abstain from copula- tion, the excretion becomes bitter or salty. Why are the melancholic particularly inclined for sexual 30 intercourse ?° Is it because they are full of breath, and the semen is a discharge of breath? If so, those whose semen is full of breath must necessarily often desire to purge themselves of it; for thus they are relieved of it. Why are birds, and men with thick hair, lustful?® Is it 31 because they have a large amount of moisture? Or is this not true (for the female sex is moist and not hairy), but is the real reason that the natures both of birds and of thick- haired men are able owing to their heat to concoct a large quantity of moisture? This is indicated by the presence of hair and feathers. Or is it because the moisture is plentiful and is overpowered by the heat? For if the moisture were not plentiful or were not overpowered, hair would not grow on human beings nor feathers on birds. Now the semen is formed most plentifully under conditions of locality and at seasons that have these characteristics,’ in spring for example, which is naturally moist and hot. Birds and * Cp. 861° 31 and note. * Reading mpogiorara (Bussemaker). ° Reading mepirr@partkay for mvevpartxay; the Latin version renders excrementts abundaniium. * ix@dwv mdvvrpov must be taken together (cp. mAvpa ixdiov, H.A. 534°27), and x@vev does not agree with mepirrwpatixay as implied by Bonitz (Index, p. 352, s. v. ixdus). : Cp. 953° 32 ff. § Cp. below, x. 24. i.e. when moisture is plentiful and is overpowered by heat. BOOK IV. 31 880" lame men are lustful for the same reason, namely, that in 5 both, owing to the deficiencies of their legs, the nourishment is carried downwards in small quantities only, while the rest travels into the upper region of the body and is converted into semen. 32 Why is it that when a man has sexual intercourse his eyes grow very weak? Is it not clear that this happens because the moisture leaves them? This is proved by the io fact that the semen is cold; for it does not become moist unless the heat warms it thoroughly. Nor does it require melting, for it is dispersed about the body like blood. 880° BOOK V PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH FATIGUE 1s Wuy is it that long walks are more fatiguing and short 1 walks less fatiguing over level ground than over uneven country ?! Is it because much movement and violent move- ment causes fatigue, and spasmodic movement is violent, and continuous and monotonous movement is much movement ? In walking therefore on hilly ground, if the distance be long, 20 the change provides a rest, and the same moyement is not continued for long, even in the case of horses, owing to the change. On even ground, on the other hand, the similarity of position continues uninterruptedly and gives the limbs no rest, but helps to make the movement continuous. Now if the distance is short, no fatigue is caused on flat ground by 25 long-continued motion; whereas over hilly ground the violent change to an opposite kind of movement, sometimes uphill and sometimes down, gives rise to fatigue. Such, in our opinion, is movement over hill country, and that over level ground is the contrary. Why is it that those who faint and those who collapse 2 30 after physical exertion are generally held to become smaller in bulk and their voices shriller? Is it because their voices, appearing to be less, seem shriller (this can be illustrated by the fact that those who imitate distant voices make shrill sounds),? while their bulk appears less (because the blood removes from the upper to the lower parts of the body) ?® Why is it that only the stomach becomes thinner in those 3 35 who take violent physical exercise ? Is it because the greatest quantity of fat is found round the stomach ? * This problem is derived practically word for word from Theophr. de lassit., § 15. > Cp. 8999 22 ff. * The MSS. read xai of dyxor éAdrrovs without adding any reason, which is necessary to the sense and to the balance of the sentence. The words enclosed in brackets are taken from T. G., who evidently translates a longer text and reads gucd sanguis a summis corporis partibus sevocat ad imas, BOOK V. 4 880” 4 Why is it that the fat is consumed in those who exert themselves? Is it because fat melts when heated, and the movement causes heat, whereas flesh does not melt ? 5 Why is it that the parts round the belly are fattest? Is it because they are near to the nourishment? While then 8812 the other parts of the body receive something from the belly, the belly itself often receives something. Or is it because the belly is exerted less than the other parts, because it has no joints ? 6 Why is it that fatigue ceases more readily if one mixes water with the oil with which one rubs oneself?! Is it 5 because the oil sinks in farther when mixed with water, whereas by itself it does not penetrate so well, because it has a tendency to remain on the surface? If, therefore, it sinks in, the body is more softened; for oil is naturally hot, and hot things have a drying and hardening effect, and dryness and hardness are inexpedient in fatigue; but when to applied with water the oil has a less drying effect. 7 Why is it that vomiting is prescribed for those who are suffering from fatigue, although vomiting is itself fatiguing ? Is it because fatigue is caused by the crushing and pressure and weariness of the bones, and this can be caused either by some external or by some internal agency, and in the latter case from one of two causes, either because the flesh over- reaches its own strength, or because one bodily constituent mingles in a large quantity with the rest of the body and does not keep to its proper place, as happens with the excretions? For any burdens which are put upon us externally cause more fatigue than our own members, even 20 though they are lighter than these in weight. This can be illustrated by the fact that those who have eaten or drunk somewhat freely, though they have exerted themselves less than when they were fasting, yet feel more fatigue, because the food, being unconcocted, is not in its proper place. And since fatigue causes liquefaction, and liquefaction is an excretion, it is the latter which produces fatigue in us, 25 o 5 1 Cp. Hippocrates, de Diaet, ii. 65. 881° 3 ° 881° PROBLEMATA wandering about at random and attacking the bones and sinews and the interior parts of the flesh, which are rare and open. Consequently vomiting, by dislodging the excretion which is the cause of fatigue, naturally makes us less fatigued ; for it leaves the body in the state in which it was when the exertion began. Vomiting is fatiguing, not because of the excess of movement caused while it is taking place, but when it does not happen to be thoroughly carried out; for fatigue caused by vomiting occurs when a con- siderable amount of food is left behind and this contains excretions, which, as we have already said,' happens in those who have eaten largely. If, therefore, in the latter it is not exertion which causes fatigue, but they feel fatigue because of the condition in which they are, so vomiting could not be the cause of fatigue in those who do not get rid of all the food which is in them ;” for in that case every one who vomited would feel fatigue, whereas many through vomiting become less fatigued. Why is it more fatiguing to the arm if one casts with the hand empty than with a stone in it?? Is it because the movement is more spasmodic if the hand be empty, for the hand has nothing to rest upon,* such as the thrower finds in the missile which he holds in his hand? Similarly the competitor in the fivefold contest ® finds résistance in the weights ® which he holds, and the runner in his arms which 1 Cp. ll. 21-3 above. ? i.e. the cause of fatigue is not the act of vomiting but the fact that food is sometimes left behind which engenders excrements, and these cause fatigue. * This problem is clearly derived from Theophr., of. ci¢., § 133 cp. also de Incess, Anim. 705° 17 ff. * amepeidew is practically the same as dvrepeidew of Mech. 851» 35, where 10 dvrepeidety expresses vis zxertiae, the tendency of a body at rest to remain at rest. In this case the tendency of the missile to remain at rest Causes resistance and therefore makes the action of the arm less spasmodic. Cp. also AZech. 85849 dvtireiver yap 7d npepoor. * The pentathlon was a combined contest in running, jumping, disk- throwing, javelin-throwing, and wrestling. ° adrhpes were weights held in the hand and thrown backwards by the jumper whilst in the air to give him impetus. Several such weights still exist in the British Museum and elsewhere, cp. Norman Gardiner, Greek Athletic Sports and Festivals, p. 298 ff., and A. S. L. Farquharson on de Incess. Anim. 705° 17. BOOK V. 8 881° he swings;! so the former jumps farther if he holds weights 5 than if he does not, and the latter runs more quickly if he swings his arms than if he does not do so. 9 Why is it that quick running causes a tendency to disease in the head both in man and in the other animals? Yet generally speaking running appears to draw the excretions downwards, as does walking; for which reason also those who walk much grow fat in the legs, because both the nourishment and the excretions settle down from the upper into the lower parts. Is it true that while motion has this” effect, yet quick motion, owing to the strain and the holding of the breath which it involves, causes heat in the head and inflates the veins in it and renders them liable to be affected by external influences, such as cold and heat, and by the contents of the trunk ;° and that if these can enter the head, disease is necessarily engendered in that region.? =) ie) 5 10 Why is it more fatiguing to walk on level than on uneven ground, whereas one can walk more quickly on an even than on an uneven road?‘ Is it because it is less fatiguing 20 if one does not move continually in the same position, and this is the case rather in traversing uneven ground? On the other hand one progresses more quickly the less one’s movement is contrary tonature. On even ground, therefore, the raising and planting of the foot is a slight but frequent movement, while the opposite occurs on uneven ground. Now to raise the foot is unnatural (for raising anything 25 requires an effort); and the slight movement of raising the foot at each step becomes considerable when repeated many times. 1 Why is it more fatiguing to lie down on a flat than on a concave surface ?° Is it for the same reason that it is more fatiguing to lie on a convex than on a flat surface ? 1 On the importance attached by the Greeks to arm action, especially in short races, see N. Gardiner, of. ci¢., p. 282. 2 Reading rovro for tavrd. 3 The @wpaé is defined by Aristotle (17. A. 491% 27) as ro dw avyevos péexpe aidvior Kiros, : : 4 This problem is again treated in chapter 23; the source in both cases is Theophr.,, of. c/Z., § 14. ae 5 The source of this problem is Theophr., of. c77., § 9. 381 PROBLEMATA 30 For the weight being concentrated in one place in the sitting or reclining position causes pain owing to the pressure. This is more the case on a convex than on a straight surface, and more on astraight than ona concave; for our body assumes curved rather than straight lines, and in such circumstances concave surfaces give more points of contact than flat 35 surfaces. For this reason also couches and seats which yield to pressure are less fatiguing than those which do not do so. Why are short walks fatiguing?! Is it because they 12 involve abrupt change, for they necessitate coming often to a standstill? Now frequent change from one extreme to 882° another is fatiguing, for it does not allow one to become accustomed to either extreme, and this is tiring; and one cannot become accustomed to both things at once. Why is it that those who ride on horseback water more 13 freely at the eyes the quicker the horse goes?” Is it 5 because the stream of air which meets them is colder according as it is for a shorter time in contact with the body (as happens in the case of naked runners), and it is the cold which makes the eyes water?* Or is the reason the contrary of this, namely, that heat makes the eyes water (the sun, for instance), and movement engenders heat? 10 Or is it due to the impact of the air? For as blasts of wind coming from an opposite direction trouble the eyes, so the air all the more deals a gentle blow the quicker the horse is driven. Why is it that the other parts of the body become more 14 fleshy when subjected to friction, but the stomach becomes leaner? Or is it true that the stomach does not become 15 gradually leaner * but solider? The flesh, however, is not similarly affected, and this is the point of the problem; for, speaking generally, the stomach does become leaner as the result of exercise and exertion. The reason is that the fat * Cp. below, chapter 35: the source of both problems is Theophr., op. cit., § 14. * Cp. below, chapter 37. * Reading daxpiew (Richards). ; sé. Aewror€épa yiverar; but T.G. appears to translate a different ext. BOOK V. 14 882% parts, and those which naturally admit of more expansion, liquefy when heated. Now the skin naturally admits of expansion ; but, because it very quickly fattens, it always 20 contains some fat, unless any disease is present. The reason of this is that it is near the nourishment.' Since, therefore, generally speaking, fat is not natural but adventitious, and is not one of the necessary constituents of the body, as is the flesh, the movements set up by exercise and friction warm and melt it and distribute the superfluous nourishment 25 in the other portions of the body. It is for this reason that sitting still makes the stomach fat and the rest of the body thin; whereas movement and friction make the stomach thin and fill out the rest of the body. 15 Why is it that after long and violent walking or running, if one stands on tiptoe, the heels quiver and are hastily 30 drawn? down again? Is it because, owing to the continuity and violence of the movement, the quivering of the muscles in the man does not cease? For the mind often controls the body as a whole, but does not control certain parts of it, when they have been set in motion in a certain way, the heart, for example, and the sexual organ. The reason is 35 that a considerable quantity of breath is consumed by heat round the muscles, which does not cool off immediately a man comes to a standstill. This breath, therefore, is drawn down, making him quiver, as it were dragging at him beneath by its movement, and leaves him little control over the most distant part of his body-—in this case over his heels. A similar phenomenon occurs in the trembling of the lower lip in those who are angry. 16 Why is it that those who are not running very hard 882° respire rhythmically? Is it because every rhythm is measured by a definite movement, and the movement at regular intervals which occurs in running is of this nature ? As soon, therefore, as they begin to run they respire ; and so the respiration taking place at equal intervals, because it 5 is measured out by a uniform movement, creates a rhythm, Or is it because all respiration without exception takes 1 Cp. 880» 39 ff. * Reading omayra for onara. 882° PROBLEMATA place at equal intervals in those who respire naturally and do not hold their breath? The rhythm then is not obvious in those who are sitting or walking, because the movement 10 of the body is slight; and in those who are running vigorously we cannot comprehend the rhythm of the respiration, because our senses cannot follow the movement. But in those who arerunning moderately fast the movementallows the measure observed by the breathing to be perceptible, and so shows the rhythm. Why is it that, when we are running, the air seems to 17 turn into breath? Is it because, while we are moving in the act of running, we set in motion a stream of air continuous with our bodies, and this is breath? Wherefore the air not only seems to turn into breath, but actually does so. Or is it because in running we come into collision with the air, and, when this happens, we have a more acute 20 perception of the air owing to the movement? It is only natural, therefore, that it should seem to us to turn into breath ; for the phenomenon occurs through the rush ot our movement. on Why is it that one is more liable to fall when running 18 than when walking?! Is it because in the former case one raises oneself higher before moving? For this is the difference between running and walking. 23 Why is it that in ascending a slope our knees feel the 19 strain, and in descending our thighs??_ Is it because when we ascend we throw the body upwards and the jerk of the body * from the knees is considerable, and so we feel the strain in the knees? But in going downhill, because the 3° weight is carried by the legs, we are supported by our thighs, and so they feel the strain. Furthermore, whatever is unnatural causes strain and pain. Now it is natural for the knees to bend forward and the thighs to bend backwards. In going uphill then the knees are bent backwards owing ’ Cp. below, chapter 20. B Cp. below, chapter 24; the source in both cases is Theophr., op. cit., 8§ 11, 12. * Omitting kal before 1) avd tév yovdrey with Bonitz. BOOK V. 19 882° to one’s desire to support oneself, but in going downhill 35 the thighs are bent forwards because the body has a tendency to fall forwards, 20 Why is it that on journeys the middle of the thigh is the part which feels the strain most? Is it because in anything that is prolonged and continuous and fixed! the strain falls most upon the centre, and so it is most likely to break at that point? Now the thigh is of this nature, and so it is in 883? the middle of it that we feel the strain most. 21 Why is it that persons of a moist temperament easily choke as a result of exertion and through heat? Is it because their moisture when heated becomes air and the excess of it burns more fiercely ?, When, therefore, it cannot 5 find its way out owing to its abundance, the process of cooling does not take place; and so it quickly catches fire owing to the natural and adventitious heat. It is for this reason that perspiration induced by taking physical exercise, and by exerting oneself generally, and the emission of breath are beneficial; for breath is formed by the separation and 10 rarefaction of moisture. 22 Why is it that bodies of an equable temperament often feel weariness but throw it off more easily? Is the cause the same in both cases? For that which is equable is uniform, and that which is uniform is the more subject to similar influences ; so if any part suffers, the whole straight- way suffers in sympathy. But that which is not equable, being more disunited, is not sympathetically affected by its parts. A body of equable temperament therefore often feels weariness, but throws it off more easily, because the whole body shares it; for the suffering, being distributed over a larger area, is weaker and therefore more easily got rid of. But a body which is not of an equable temperament, inasmuch as it has no communion with its members, is less often afflicted with weariness, but has greater difficulty in shaking it off; for its suffering is acute. 20 tn . ; ee? 1 Inserting a comma after ¢eoryjtypevou Oe. 883° 30 w& 3] (eo) 4 883° PROBLEMATA Why is it more fatiguing to walk on level than on uneven ground, whereas one can walk more quickly on an even than on an uneven road?! Is it because it is least fatiguing if one does not move continually in the same position, and ; this is the case rather in traversing uneven ground?” But one travels more quickly when the foot has to be lifted less in any equal period of time. On level ground the raising of the foot is a slight but frequent movement, on uneven ground the reverse; but the slight® movement of raising the foot at each step becomes considerable when repeated many times. Why is it that in descending a slope we feel the strain most in the thighs, and in ascending in the legs?* Is it because in ascending the strain is due to the raising of the body? For the whole body becomes a burden ; and so the part upon which it all rests and with which we raise it (that is, the legs) feels the strain most. For the leg is an extremity, having length but not having width, as the foot has; consequently it is shaken. So we may cite in 5 illustration the fact that we move weights with the shoulder and rest them upon it, and therefore feel the strain most in the shoulder. But when we are descending, the strain is caused by the body falling downwards and thrusting us forward unnaturally, so that we feel the strain most in the part on which it falls most and which it shakes. Now the leg remains unaffected, and the trunk forms the weight ; but it is the thigh which receives the weight and is shaken, because it has extension and is forced from above into a bent position where the trunk presses on it. Why is it that a journey seems longer when we traverse it without knowing its length than when we do know it, all other conditions being equal?5 Is it because to know ’ A repetition, partly verbal, of the problem of chapter ro. * The text as it stands gives no sense and we must clearly restore from 881% 20, 21 i) Gre dxomdrarov peév Td pu) det ev (16 atte oXijpare moveta Oat thy Kivnow, 5 cupBaiver ev) TH dvopdde xtr., the omission being due to homoeoteleuton. ; ° Reading yudpevor Cpixpov) modv, cp. 881» 26. * Cp. above, chapter 19. ° This problem occurs again in xxx. 4. 23 24 25 BOOK V., 25 883° its length is to be able to connect a number with it, and 5 the indeterminate is always more than the determinate ? Just as, therefore, if one knows that a journey is a certain length, it must necessarily be finite, so, if one does not know, as though the proposition was convertible! the mind draws a false conclusion, and the distance appears infinite. Furthermore, a quantity is determinate, and that which is determinate is a quantity ; therefore when a thing appears 10 not to be determinate, it appears to be as it were infinite, because that which is of a nature to be determined, if it is not so, is infinite ; so that what appears not to be determined necessarily appears in a sense unlimited. 26 Why is it that the thighs feel fatigue more than the legs ? 2 Is it because they are nearer to the part of the body which contains the excrement, so that, when that part overflows 15 with heat owing to the movement, the thighs contract more readily and to a greater extent? Or is it because the thighs are more closely connected by growth with one another,* for they suffer considerably owing to the separation of what is really continuous?* For indeed, If one feels fatigue when there is no excrement in the body, yet it is the thighs 20 and loins which suffer more than the other parts. Or is it because, just as swellings in the groin are caused, if one receives a blow,® owing to the close connexion of the veins and sinews, so the thigh is similarly affected? For the thigh is nearer than the leg to the source of the veins. Or is it because the thigh remains more in the same position than the legs, and this is more fatiguing?’ Oris it because 1 dvriotpedovros is here used in its logical sense of transposing the terms of a proposition (cp. Pv. Anal. 25% 6 ff.) ; the proposition ‘any journey of which I know the length must be finite’ 1s converted into ‘any journey that is finite must be one of which I know the length’. 2'The source of this problem is Theophr., of. czt., § 10, 3 Reading cupqueis for suppres. ; 4 Cp. Zop. 1452 9 adyndav dudcracis TOY CvpduTov pepav pera Bias, 5 Reading mAnyevros (cp. Bonitz, /ndex,p. 140). The sense is clearer in the original source (Theophr., /. ¢.), dre d€ 1) aviprnots move: oupmaberav Tay vetipov Kai PdeBav kal €k Tov BovBovev Snhov’ mAnyevTwy yap Tov xdtabey evravéa BouBaves. 6 j, e, the heart, cp. P. A. 665° 15, de cuv. et sen. 468” 31. 7 Cp. 881 20-22. 883° PROBLEMATA 25 the thigh is fleshy, and therefore the natural heat’ there is considerable ? Why is it that in some people® sores are formed as the 27 result of exertion?’ Is it because, when the body contains impurities, movement heats it and causes other excretions to exude with the perspiration? These excretions, being 30 thick and containing harmful humours of an acid, bitter, and salty nature, cannot be expelled owing to their thick- ness, but swell up through the flesh and cause sores owing to the bitterness of the humour which they contain. Why is it that food is not given immediately after exercise 28 and after medicine has been administered? Is it because the body is still being purged and has not yet rested from its toil, and the excretions have not yet been expelled ? w we Why is it more difficult to run than to walk?* Is it 29 because the runner has a heavier burden, since, when he is raised in the air, he has his whole weight tosupport? But a man who is walking continues to put his weight on the 4o part of him which is at rest, like a man leaning against a wall. 8842. Why is it that one does not feel hungry immediately after 30 exercise? Is it because liquefaction still remains until the concoction of anything is complete?® Or is it owing to the breath which the exertion engenders from the moisture ? Or is it owing to the thirst which is due to the heat caused 5 by the exertion? All these possible causes are present. Why is it that those who are fatigued and those who are 31 suffering from phthisis are apt to emit semen during sleep ?® Is it because generally speaking those who are warm and moist are inclined to do so, since the semen naturally has these characteristics?" Now such a thing is most likely to ’ Reading, with Richards, 7d xara hiow (Geppov) exeu. * Reading, with Richards, évo.. Se The source of this problem is Theophr. de Sudore, § 133 cp. Hippocr. £pid. vi. 5. 15. ‘ ee * Cp. chapter 18. 5 Reading éws dv tu repOy (Bussemaker). ° Galen, Zid. vi. 3 quotes this problem as Aristotelian; | Theophr. de Lassit., Sie. i ; reas ane ” Cp. 8768 9-12. BOOK V. 31 884" happen in persons in these conditions, when the heat engendered by sleep is added ; for the body requires a slight 10 impulse only, which must be internal and not external. This condition is fulfilled in those who are suffering from phthisis and in those who are fatigued; the latter being full of hot liquid owing to their fatigue and movement, and the former owing to their state of flux and the heat engendered by their inflamed condition. if 32, ~Why is it more difficult to apply prolonged friction oneself to the left leg than to the right? Is it because, though our right is the side which is capable of exertion, yet the rubbing of the left leg, since it involves! a distorted attitude, is unnatural, and anything which is unnatural is difficult?? The difficulty of rubbing the right side with 20 the left hand is not obvious, because the left hand has no strength whichever side it is applied to.* 33. «Why is it healthy to reduce the amount of nourishment and to increase the amount of exercise? Is it because abundance of excretion is the cause of disease? Now this is due either to excess of nourishment or to lack of 2; exercise. 34. Why should the flesh be made rare rather than dense in order to promote health?* For just as a city or locality is healthy which is open to the breezes (and that is why the sea too is healthy), so a body is healthier in which the air can circulate. For either there ought to be no excrement present in the body, or else the body ought to get rid of it 30 as soon as possible and ought to be in such a condition that it can reject the excrement as soon as it receives it and be always in a state of motion and never at rest. For that which remains stationary putrefies (standing water, for example), and that which putrefies and does not move causes disease; but that which is rejected passes away before it becomes corrupt. This then does not occur if the 35 1 Reading efeorpapucvas (yap) yiverar with Bussemaker. 2 Cp. 882°31, 3 The text here seems corrupt, but the sense is clear. _ 4 This problem occurs also in i. 52, and is identical with the second part of xxxvil. 3. 884° 884° 5 sie) 15 20 PROBLEMATA flesh is dense, the ducts being as it were blocked up, but it does happen if the flesh is rare. One ought not, therefore, to walk naked in the sun; for the flesh thereby solidifies and acquires an absolutely fleshy consistency, and the body becomes moister, for the internal moisture remains,! but the surface moisture is expelled, a process which also takes place in meat when it is roasted rather than boiled? Nor ought one to walk about with the chest bare; for then the sun draws the moisture out of the best constructed parts of the body, which? least of all require to be deprived of it. It is rather the inner parts of the body which should be submitted to this process; for, because they are remote, it is impossible to produce perspiration from them except by violent effort, but it is easy to produce it from the chest because it is near the surface. Why is it that short walks are fatiguing? Is it because 35 one often comes to a standstill and there is no uniform movement in the joints, and this is fatiguing ? Why do those who stand still in the sun become warmer 36 than those who move, and this although movement is pro- ductive of heat? Is it true that every kind of movement does not produce heat, but some kinds have a cooling effect, as happens, for example, when one blows upon or keeps in motion kitchen-pots which have boiled up? If then the heat remains when one stands still and, doing so, heats us more than if it were in motion (for our own body always gives off a warm steam, which heats the neighbouring air, as though there were a burning brand there), then, if we remain motionless, the air surrounding us becomes warm for the reasons already stated ; whereas, if we move, a wind is set up which cools us, for wind always has a cooling effect. Why is it that those who ride on horseback water more 37 freely at the eyes the quicker the horse goes, and those on foot the quicker they run?° Is it due to the fact that the * Reading Scapever for 5) pever, cp. 865° 31. > Reading ra dara trav par, cp. 865° 32, 966? 28. * Reading 4 for 4, as in 865> 34. * Cp. above, chapter 12. * Cp. above, chapter 13. BOOK V. 37 884° air which meets them is cold? For cold causes the eyes to 25 water ; for by contracting and solidifying the flesh it purges out the moisture. Or is the reason the contrary of this, namely, that the heat causes perspiration, and watering at the eyes is a form of perspiration? ‘Therefore both perspira- tion and watering at the eyes are due to heat and are alike salty ; and it is movement which causes heat. Or is it due 30 to the impact of the air? For as blasts of wind coming from an opposite direction trouble the eyes, so too the quicker a man drives or runs the more does the air deal a gentle blow, and this causes the eyes to water, because the ducts of the eye are rarefied by the blow; for every blow has the effect either of cleaving or crushing. 35 38 Why is it that fatigue must be cured in the summer by baths, in the winter by anointing ?! Is it because the latter, owing to the cold and the changes which it causes in the body, must be got rid of by heat, which will cause warmth, and olive-oil contains heat? In summer, on the other hand, the body requires moisture; for the season is dry and chills 885? are not engendered, because it is warm. A sparing diet of solid food and a liberal indulgence in liquid nourishment are characteristic of the summer, the latter being peculiar to the summer, while the former is commoner than at other seasons; for indulgence in drinking is peculiar to the summer because of the dryness of the season, but a sparing diet is found at all seasons, but is more general in the summer; for then owing to the season more heat is 5 engendered by food. 39 «©=Why is it that those who are running vigorously experi- ence the greatest shock, if any one impedes them in their course? Is it because a thing is being drawn apart most vigorously when it is being dragged or moved violently in a contrary direction? If therefore any one impedes one who is running and whose limbs are being vigorously 10 thrust forward, the result is that he wrenches him back at the same time as his limbs are still moving forward, and so 1 A repetition almost word for word of Bk. i. 39. 645-25 G 885° PROBLEMATA the more vigorously he is running the more violent is the shock which he receives. Why is it that walking along roads! over uneven ground 40 13 is less fatiguing than along a flat, straight surface? Is it because an upright carriage is natural to everybody, but walking over even surfaces is more fatiguing than over uneven ground, since walking over even ground causes a continuous strain on the same members, whereas walking over uneven ground distributes the strain over the whole body? Now walking in warm weather tends more to make ao the body thin than in cold weather ; for it causes more strain - upon the outer parts, and so causes thinness by engendering perspiration. Walking in cold weather makes the flesh more solid and causes a great desire for food; for it engenders an increase of heat in the inner parts and, since as they become less liable to be affected by the cold, it cleanses the inner region by increasing the heat there, while it makes the flesh firm, since it cannot prevail over the whole of it. In like manner walking uphill is a greater exertion and tends more to cause thinness than walking downhill. For walking uphill causes most strain to the loins (whereas 30 walking downhill is most trying to the thighs, for the whole weight falls upon them and so usually causes fatigue in them); for as they are forcibly carried? upwards in an un- natural manner, heat is engendered. Walking uphill there- fore induces perspiration and causes thinness by heightening the respiration and engenders pain in the loins; for the legs, 35 being lifted with difficulty, cause the loins to bend and draw them up, which naturally causes a very great strain. Walking on hard, resisting ground causes fatigue to the muscles and tendons of the legs; for it causes tension in the sinews and 885° muscles, because the pressure upon them is violent. Walking on soft ground is fatiguing to the joints; for it causes frequent bending of the joints, because the surface trodden gives way.® Reading ray xara ras 6Sovs (Richards). A Saas danas eS : : : : Omitting td rod Oepyod, which spoils the sense, and reading pepopevors, * Omitting 76 & atré eore mpoBAnua, cp, 874% 34 and note. BOOK V. 41 885° 41 Why do we walk with difficulty up a steep slope? Is it 5 because all progression is made up of raising the feet and putting them down again? Now raising the foot is un- natural and putting it down is natural, while putting the foot forward! is a mean between the two. Now in walking up a steep slope the unnatural motion preponderates. 42 [Why are riders ou horseback less likely to fall? Is it because owing to their fear they are more careful ?] ? x ° 1 Reading mpocivac for mpooOetva; the Latin version renders frvo- ponere; so too Bussemaker. 2 This problem is omitted by C# and neither makes any sense nor is relevant to a discussion of fatigue. GZ 885° BOOK VI PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH THE POSITIONS ASSUMED IN LYING DOWN AND IN OTHER POSTURES: 15 WHY is it that sitting down makes some persons fat and I others lean? Is it because bodily conditions differ, some men being hot, others cold? Those therefore who are hot grow fat (for the body owing to its heat prevails over’ the nourishment) ; but those who are cold, owing to the fact that their body requires heat introduced from without and 20 derives it chiefly from movement, cannot concoct their food while they are at rest. Or is it because the hot are full of superfluities and require movement to expend them, while the cold are not so? Why is it necessary that the parts of the body should be 2 distended, as happens when a man takes athletic exercise? 251s it because the ducts must be purged by their own breath ? Why is it better to lie in a curved position and why do 3 many physicians prescribe this? Is it because the stomach concocts food more quickly when it is kept warm, and it keeps warmer in this position? Furthermore it is necessary to give the vapours a place where they can settle; for then 30 there is less likely to be pain from flatulence. (It is on this account that swollen veins and abscesses of all kinds help to restore a healthy condition, because they form hollows in which they receive the vapours.) When the body then is extended no hollow is formed (for the internal organs occupy all the space); but a hollow is formed when the body is curved. 35 Why is dizziness more likely to occur in those who are 4 standing than in those who are sitting ?2 Is it because, when one is still, the moisture all inclines to one part of the body? This is why raw eggs cannot be spun round and round but fall over. The same thing occurs when the ' 1.€. concocts (wérret) or digests. ? Cp. Theophr. de Vert. 12. Sh (ih OX BOOK VI. 4 885° moisture in the body is put in motion. So one stands up after having been at rest, when one is in this condition; ! 8862 but one sits down after having been in motion, when the moisture is evenly and uniformly distributed 5 Why is it that sleep comes more readily if one lies on the right side? Is it because the conditions when we are awake and when we are asleep are the contrary of one another? Since, therefore, when we are awake we recline on the left side, the contrary will occur when another principle, namely, the contrary, is at work, Or is it because sleep is the absence of movement? The parts then of the body which are most active must be at rest; and the parts of the body on the right are most active. So, if one is lying on this side, a waking principle is as it were enchained. or 6 Why does one feel numbness?) And why more in the ro hands and feet than elsewhere?? Is it because numbness is a process of cooling, being due to deprivation of blood and its transference elsewhere ? Now these parts, especially the feet, are least fleshy and most muscular, and so they are naturally disposed to cool quickly. 7 Why do we find it comfortable to recline on the left side, but sleep better on the right side?* Is it because by turning away we avoid looking towards tie light, since in the dark sleep comes on more readily? Or is it because we keep awake when reclining on the left side, and in this position we can easily employ ourselves in any particular function ; and so for the contrary purpose? the contrary position’ is advantageous ; for each position invites to a particular function.® ~ on iS) io) 1 i.e. when the moisture is collected in one place. Cp. Theophr., fr. 11 (Wimmer), de J/embvorum Solutione. Cp. above, chapter 5. Chie ealOr rest, Reading from T.G. mpos ro évavrioy (10 e€vavtivv) oxipu (SO too Lussemaxer). : ® Many MSS. here repeat a shorter and slightly different form oi chapter 1: ‘Why is it that sitting down makes some persons fat and others lean? Is it because of their bodily condition? lor those who are hotter grow fat, for the body prevails over the nourishment owing to its heat, which is not lost (reading edutpouperyr) ; but those who are cool, because they require heat introduced from without, cainot concoct their nourishment while they are at rest.’ On 32 886" BOOK VII PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH SYMPATHETIC ACTION Wuy do men generally themselves yawn when they see I others yawn?! Is it because, if they are reminded of it when they feel a desire to perform any function, they then put it into execution, particularly where the desire is easily stirred, for example, that of passing urine? Now a yawn is a breath and a movement of moisture; it is therefore easy of performance, if only one sees some one else yawn- ing; for the yawn is always ready to come. bd tn Why is it that, although we do not imitate the action 2 30 if we see a man stretching out his hand or foot or doing anything else of the kind, yet we ourselves yawn if we see some one else doing so?* Or does this not always occur, but only when the body happens to feel a desire and is in such a condition that its moisture becomes heated ? For then it is recollection which gives the impulse, as also in sexual desire and hunger; for it is that which causes recollection to exist? that provides the stimulus towards the condition observed in another person. Las) on Why is it that if we stand by a fire we desire to pass 3 urine, and if men stand near water (for example, near 886° a river) they actually pass urine? Is it because water in general reminds us of the water in our own bodies, and the neighbourhood of water incites our internal moisture to come out? Fire of itself dissolves anything which is solidified in the body, just as the sun melts the snow. ' Cp. problems 2 and 6. ? Cp. problems 1 and 6. * €ori kai should perhaps be read for «fvat, ‘for that which causes the recollection also provides the stimulus’, &c. * This problem is definitely referred to as Aristotelian by Aulus Gellius (xix. 4): ‘ Aristotelis libri sunt, qui problemata physica inscri- buntur, lepidissimi et elegantiarum omne genus referti. In his quaerit -- cur accidat, ut eum qui propter ignem diutius stetit, libido urinae lacessat . .. De urina crebra ex igne proximo facta, verba haec posuit: To be mip Staxada 7d memnyds, Sorep 6 Atos rhv xLdva,’ BOOK VII. 4 886" 4 Why is it that those who come into contact with certain diseases become affected by them, but no one ever becomes healthy through contact with health?! Is it because 5 disease is a state of movement, while health is a state of rest? If so, disease can set up movement, but health cannot. Or is it because disease comes to us against our will, while health comes by our own wish? Things then which occur against our will are different from those which occur by our wish and deliberate choice. 5 Why is it that not only do some unpleasant sounds make us shudder*—for example, when a saw is being 1° sharpened, or pumice-stone cut, or a stone ground *“—but the signs of effects produced in others ‘conveyed by the sight cause those very effects in ourselves? For our teeth are set on edge when we see others eating anything bitter, and some people faint when they see any one being strangled. Is it because every sound or noise is a breath,* and this penetrating into us naturally causes disturbance ? 15 Now it will cause greater disturbance if it comes either in great quantity or with an unusually violent impact, setting up a new condition or causing some alteration within us. Wherefore breaths’ which, though large.in bulk, are yet soft, stir the actual seat of sensation, and such have a plea- sant effect; but those which are rough, causing a violent impact, shake the seat of sensation and affect a wide area 20 owing to the force of their impact. Now things which are cold also affect a wide area, for coldness is a kind of force; therefore, as has been already said, it causes shuddering. But things which are rough, because they cause a series of frequent impacts, striking on the base of the hair thrust it in the opposite direction;® for when the hair is thrust out, its ends must necessarily assume a contrary position, 25 with the result that it stands upright; for hair always naturally lies flat. The direction taken by the breath . Cp. 95124 ff. 2 pirresy covers the meanings both of trembling or shuddering and of the hair standing on end. Ep. Oo4 abit. ‘ i.e. sound-vibration. PE pid 7 33, O0os 25. ® i.e. outwards from the head. 886? PROBLEMATA which is conveyed to the body by the hearing is downwards from above. The sounds, therefore, which we have men- tioned! being harsh, the hair bristles for the reasons stated. The bristling occurs more on the rest of the body than on 30 the head, because the hair there is weaker and the effect produced is weaker. The sensation produced by hearing being blunter than that produced by sight, the effects produced by it are confined to the surface of the body ; the bristling of the hair is an effect of this kind, so it occurs 35 from many dissimilar causes. The sensation produced by sight being very distinct, its results too are correspondingly more distinct; therefore the effects actually ? occurring in others are reproduced in those who observe them, but 887° more mildly than in the original. But as a result of hearing our hair stands on end for fear, not of the actual sounds, but of the anticipation which they arouse; for it is an anticipation of grievous ill. Why is yawning caused by the sight of others yawning,* 6 sand so also the passing of urine, particularly in beasts of burden? Is it due to recollection? For when recollection occurs the part of the body concerned is stimulated. In men then, because their sensations are finer, when they see something stimulation and recollection occur simul- taneously. But in the beasts the sight is not sufficient by itself, but they require another sense to be called into 10 activity ; so the sense of smell must also be employed, this being a more easily stimulated sense in unreasoning animals. So the other animals always pass urine in the same spot as the first one; for the stimulus is most acute when the sense of smell is employed; and the sense of smell is called in play when they are near the spot. 15 Why is it that when we see any one cut or burned or 7 tortured or undergoing any other painful suffering, we share mentally in his pain? Is it because nature is common ' Cp. Il. 10, 11 above. * Reading with Bonitz avra for radra, cp. above, 1. 12. * As in the example given in 886” 12-14, viz. fainting as the result of seeing a person strangled. * Cp. chapters 1 and 2. BOOK VII. 7 887° to us all, and it is this which shares in the sufferer’s pain, when we see any of these things happening to him, through kinship with him? Or is it because, just as the nose and hearing according to their particular faculties receive certain 20 emanations, so also the sight does the same as the result of things pleasant and painful ? 8 Why is it that those who come into contact with phthisis or ophthalmia or scurvy become affected by them, but there is no contagion from dropsy or fevers or apoplexy and the rest? In ophthalmia is contagion due to the fact that 25 the eye is very easily affected and more than the other senses assimilates itself to that which it sees—for example, it moves when it sees something else moved—and so it very readily becomes disordered when it sees another eye in that condition? In phthisis is the contagion due to the fact that phthisis makes the breath weak and laboured, and those diseases are most quickly contracted which are due to the corruption of the breath, as is seen in plagues? He therefore who comes into contact with the sufferer 30 inhales this corrupted breath, and so himself becomes ill, because the breath is unhealthy ; and he catches the disease from one person only, because that person exhales this particular breath, which is different from that which others exhale; and he catches the same disease, because, in inhaling the breath! by which he becomes infected, he is inhaling just such breath as he would if he were already suffering from the disease. Scurvy alone is catching among similar diseases,” such as leprosy and the like, because it affects the surface of the body and causes a glutinous discharge (for this is the nature of itching diseases), and so this disease,’ being on the surface of the body and glutinous, can be conveyed by contact. Other similar diseases are not so conveyed, because either they are not on the w uo 1 Reading rovro for rovr», but the corruption of the text has probably gone farther than this and some such reading as ry atti d¢ réoov toitw os dy acOevnan, drt avamvei xtd. is perhaps nearer to the original: ‘he catches the same disease as the sick man, because he is inhaling’, &c. 2 Reading pdvoy with the best MSS. * Reading avrn (Richards). 887° PROBLEMATA surface, or else, being on the surface, they do not remain there, because they are dry. 887” Why do purslane and salt stop inflammation of the 9 gums?! Is it because purslane contains some moisture? This is seen to be so if one chews it or if it be crushed together”? for some time; for the moisture is then drawn out of it. The glutinous matter sinks into the gum and draws out the acidity. For that there is an affinity between 5 the disease and the remedy is shown by the acidity; for the juice of the purslane has a certain acidity. Salt, on the other hand, dissolves and draws out the acidity. Why then do lye and soda not have this effect? Is it because they have an astringent instead of a dissolvent effect ? 1 This problem occurs also in i. 38, where see notes. * Reading ovvOAac6y for cvrvteb7, see note on 863» 13. BOOK VIII PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH CHILL AND SHIVERING. 1 Why is it that those who are chilled become livid ? Is it because the blood is congealed by the cold and, as it congeals, becomes black through the absence of heat ? (A white colour, on the other hand, is to be attributed to fire.) For this reason also the flesh of the aged is par- ticularly livid, because it contains very little heat. 2 Why is it that those who are chilled cannot sleep?! Is it because any one who is chilled tends to hold his breath, but a sleeper exhales rather than inhales, so that it is difficult for one who is cold to sleep, since it is impossible to do contrary things simultaneously ? 3 Why is it that those who are ill or in pain or angry become more active under the influence of cold? Is it because a cold condition makes a man stronger ? 4 Why is it that athletes in good training do not bear the cold well? Is it because their condition is clean and airy and free from fat? Such a condition is easily accessible to the air, since it is permeable and does not contain any heat; fat, on the other hand, is hot, unless it is saturated with moisture. 5 Why are the extremities most affected by cold? Is it due to their narrow shape? Also the ducts in them, being narrow, hold little blood, and therefore little heat; for the blood is hot. 6 Why are the feet more liable to become chilled when they are suspended in mid air? Is it because the wind blows more underneath then? Or is it because the blood is contracted into a narrower space below, and so the rest 1 Cp. chapter 22. 2 Cp. chapter 10. 887° To 20 30 887° 35 8887 I on fe} on PROBLEMATA of the foot is more easily chilled, because the heat leaves it? Why is it that stout persons are especially liable to chill, 7 although fat is warm? Is it because, owing to the great- ness of their bulk, their extreme parts are far from the internal heat, while their near parts are far from the external cold? Why do people shiver after sneezing and after passing 8 urine?! Is it because in both processes the veins are emptied, and when they are empty the cold air enters, and this causes shivering? Why is it that ravenous hunger is felt in cold weather 9 and in winter rather than in summer? Is it because ravenous hunger is brought on through lack of dry nourish- ment, and in the cold and winter the internal heat contracts into a narrower space and its internal nourishment soon fails, and when this happens ravenous hunger is more likely to occur? The faintness and weakness due to ravenous hunger occur when liquefaction takes place in the body owing to the collection of heat in one place. This liquefied matter flows into the region usually occupied by the nourishment and itself becomes nourishment for the body ; if it attacks the seat of respiration, loss of voice and weakness ensue, the loss of voice being due to the obstruc- tion of the passage of the breath, while the weakness is caused by the lack of nourishment in the body and internal liquefaction. Treatment in such cases can be quickly and simply applied, because the cause of the trouble is external ; for it is the external? cold making our heat contract which causes the ravenous hunger. So just as one trembles and turns pale from fear, but, when freed*® from the danger, one recovers immediately ; so too those who are suffering from ravenous hunger, after taking a little bread, quickly recover,* having undergone a violent and unnatural dis- This problem is almost identical with xxxiii. 16. Reading éexrds (W. D.R.) for évrds. Reading dgedévres for adevres (so also Richards). kat of Bouvdtui@vres . . . TaXeta ) dmoxaTdoTagts yivetat is an anacolu- : ; ; thon for of 8. rayéws drokabicrarrat. 2 s 4 10 II BOOK VIII. 9 turbance, but not having been permanently injured thereby ; for the same thing which resists the tendency ! of nature also restores us to our natural course. Once relax the force which is straining against nature, and the body slips back into its natural state as suddenly as children who are playing at ‘tug-of-war’ with a rope, if the rope is let go, fall on their backs. Why is it that those who have undergone athletic train- ing do not bear the cold so well as those who have not done so?? Is it because the fat is got rid of by their exercises, and-it is the fat which gives warmth, since that which is oily is hot? Or is it because the body is in a more airy and rare condition, because the fat and the excretions have been got rid of, so that there is nothing to keep out the cold? Or is it because through the opening? of the pores by perspiration a number of doors are as it were removed?* It is clear that the same condition does not conduce both to health and to strength; for obviously a condition of health is one of fatness, while a condition of strength is a state of rarity. Why do we shiver both when hot and when cold water is poured over us? For it is strange that contraries should produce the same result. Is it because, when cold water is poured over us,°® the extinguishing of the internal heat causes shivering, whereas, as the effect of warm water, the superficial cold is enclosed® in one place and massed to- gether by its inward rush?" So both effects are due to the same cause, but in one case it operates from within and in the other from without. Why do the hairs bristle upon the skin?* Is it because they naturally stand erect when the skin is contracted, and 1 Reading 17... dywy?. 2 Cp. chapter 4. 3 It is doubtful whether adrogrdépwow, a word apparently only occur- ring here, can mean ‘opening’, since the verb amogrupouy means ‘to stop up’; dvagrépwow should therefore probably be read. * And so let in the cold. e Reading POT XEOpE VOLS for Tpog XEGMEVOL. 6 See note on 867? 32. 7 Cp. de Sommno, 457° 14-17. ® This problem is repeated in xxxv. 5; the same subject is treated in chapters 15 and 21 below. 888° 35 888° PROBLEMATA 4o this contraction occurs owing to cold and certain other conditions ? 888° Why is it that one shivers at the last emission of urine ?13 Is it because, whilst the warm liquid is still within, the bladder and the passages round it are full, but when it has passed out they fill up! again with cold air, for nothing can be empty, but must be full either of something corporeal 5or of air? Inasmuch then as cold air enters, shivering is a natural result. Why is it that the tongue of those who are chilled, like 14 that of the drunken, stumbles? Is it because, as it stiffens and hardens with the cold, it becomes difficult to move, and, when this happens, it cannot speak plainly? Or is it 10 because, the outer parts of the body being solidified by the cold, the moisture flows together within and saturates the tongue, and so it cannot perform its function, as has been already described in the case of the drunken? Or is it because owing to the trembling produced by chill, the movement of the tongue is irregular and it cannot articulate the words which it utters, and consequently it stumbles ? or Why do the hairs stand erect on the bodies of those 15 who are chilled?* Is it because as a result of cooling the heat collects in the inner region of the body, and the flesh, as the heat leaves it, contracts more and more, and, as it is drawn together, the hairs become more upright ? 20 [Or is it because. . .| * Why in the winter are we more likely to become chilled 16 through running than through standing still? Is it because the air surrounding the body, when we stand still, no longer causes discomfort when once the body is thoroughly warm, but on the other hand, when we are running, we are continually encountering more and more cold air, and so 25 are more liable to become chilled? Moreover also air is 1 Reading evérAnoder. 23Gp. O75 eo 7aits ° Cp. chapters 12 and 21. * A further reason has been accidentally omitted. BOOK VIII. 16 888° cold when it is in motion, and it is for the most part such air that meets us in running. 17 Why is it that it is colder at dawn, although! the sun is nearer to us? Is it because the period of the sun’s absence is then at its longest, so that the earth has become more cooled? Or is it because towards daybreak the dew falls, as does the hoar-frost, and both of these are cold? Or do they too fall because the heat which rises from the earth is overpowered, the reason that it is overpowered being the absence of the sun? So that they do not fall when the sun is farther away, but when it is nearer they fall and become congealed,’ because the longer the sun is absent the cooler the ground becomes.* Or is it because the nocturnal breezes tend to cause cold‘* towards day- 3; break? Or do we only imagine that it is colder because then the food within us is concocted and, the stomach being emptier, we are more liable to feel the cold? This can be illustrated by the fact that we feel very cold after vomiting. w ° 18 Why is it that those who are chilled feel pain if they are taken straight to the fire, whereas they do not do so if they are warmed gradually? Is it because one contrary 40 immediately succeeding another contrary always sets up 889% a violent change? We may compare the fact that if one bends a tree by degrees, it does not suffer, but if one bends it with greater violence and not gradually, it breaks off. If therefore like is unaffected by like, and the heat of a man who is chilled collects and concentrates within him, 5 and the moisture and cold are left behind, and a contrary is destructive of its contrary, it follows that, if one is warmed by degrees, the heat comes out gradually and less 1 Omitting 4, or else reading i) (vuxros) from 938% 32, where the same problem is treated more briefly ; cp. below, 1. 33, which clearly states that the dew and the hoar-frost, which fall at dawn, fall when the sun is near the earth. T.G. renders cur tempore matulino frigus acrius est, cum tamen sol propius adsit? } * Putting a comma after myvura: instead of a semicolon. 3 j,e. it so happens that the time when the dew and hoar-frost fall is the time when the sun is nearest to the earth, but the cause is not the position of the sun but the fact that the ground is coldest at dawn. * Reading, with Richards, mvevpara (aira) ris pugews. 889° PROBLEMATA pain is caused, but, if the warming is not gradual, the heat is rather drawn out.’ 10 Why is it that when we are chilled the same heat causes Ig more burning and pain?? Is it because owing to its density the flesh holds the heat which comes into contact with it? This is the reason why lead becomes hotter than wool. Or is the passage of the heat violent because the pores are congealed by the cold? 1; Why is it that those who are angry do not become 20 cold? Is it because anger and wrath are the opposite of cowardice? Now anger is the result of fiery heat, for by retaining a large quantity of fiery heat within us we become warm. This is particularly noticeable in children. For grown-up men when angry become distracted,* but children first of all take in breath in large quantities and 20 then blush; for the amount of heat in them being very great and causing liquefaction makes them blush, since, if one were to pour a quantity of cold water on them, they would cease* from their wrath, for their heat would be quenched, The opposite occurs in cowards and those who are afraid;° for they are chilled and become cold 2sand pale; for the heat leaves the superficial region of their bodies. Why is it that when we shiver, the hairs stand erect ?® 21 Do they lie down’ because they grow in moisture? For the weight® of the hair prevails over the moisture. Now shivering is caused by the cold, for the cold naturally congeals the moisture. When therefore the moisture, out ° 3 ’ The text of the whole of this passage is unsatisfactory though the general meaning is plain. * i.e. more than it would if we were not chilled. This problem is repeated in xxxvil. 4. ° It is improbable that BXdrovrac can mean this by itself without the addition of rais @péor or something similar; it is almost certainly corrupt. Some verb meaning ‘suppress their feelings’ or ‘escape notice’ would be expected. T.G. does not render oi pév ydp dvdpes BAarrovrar. * Reading mavoawr’ dy (Richards). * The Teubner text prints PoBovpevo for PoBovpevor. Cp. chapters 12 and 15. Reading xataxéxdwrat (W. D.R.) for xataxexdeio Oat, cp. below, |. 35. Reading, with Bonitz, Bdpos for Bados, cp. below, 1. 34. 6 7; 8 22 BOOK VIII. 21 889° of which the hair grows, undergoes a change and congeals, it is natural that the hair should undergo a change also. If therefore it changes into a contrary condition, it either remains permanently in that condition, or else the hair will again prevail over the moisture. It is not, however, likely that the hair can by its weight overpower the moisture when it is congealed and condensed; and if it is impossible for the hair to lie down anywhere because the 35 moisture is congealed, the only thing left for it to do is to stand erect. Or is it because, as a result of cooling, the heat collects in the interior region of the body, and the flesh, as the heat leaves it, contracts more and more, and, as it draws together, the hair grows more upright,! just as when one fixes a twig or some other object into 889° the ground and fills the space round it and collects the soil on every side, it is more likely to remain erect than if one leaves the soil loose round it ? Why is it that those who are chilled find it particularly difficult to go to sleep?? Is it because one who is chilled holds his breath rather than exhales, and a sleeper exhales 5 rather: than inhales? Chill therefore induces a condition which is directly opposed to sleep. 1 Down to this point the sentence is a repetition of 888° 17-21. ? Cp. chapter 2 645-265 H 889° BOOK IX PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH BRUISES, SCARS, AND WEALS! 10 WHY is it that weals can be prevented by the application I of newly flayed hides, particularly those of rams, and by breaking eggs over the part affected? Is it because both these things prevent the collection of moisture and the consequent swelling? For the wounded place attracts the moisture and swells owing to the inflammation.2 Now eggs owing to their glutinous consistency cause adhesion 13 and prevent swelling (their effect resembling that of cautery °), acting as a kind of glue. The hide owing to its glutinous condition adheres and at the same time by its heat sets up concoction and stops the inflammation, for they do not remove it for several days. Rubbing with salt and vinegar is also employed with the object of drawing out the inflammation. 20 Why is it that scars are black on the rest of the body but 2 white on the eye?‘ Is it because a scar, like everything else which is diseased, takes on the contrary of its original colour, and it is in the black part of the eye that wounds are inflicted? However, scars on the body do not become a5 black immediately, but are white at first ; nor are scars in the eye always white,* but it is only after a while that they become absolutely or comparatively so. Why does a fennel-stalk ®° make the parts round the place 3 which is struck red and the centre of it white? Is it ‘ Some MSS. read rpavpara, wounds, for pod\wras. 2 Bekker’s reading €Axer émaiperat.makes no sense. T.G. renders pars enim collisa humorem trahit intumescitgue. We clearly should read eAxet (rd bypoy Kal) eraiperat, the omission being due to homoeote- feuton. The sentence then explains rjv dOporow rod vypod Kat thy émapow of the previous sentence. S\Gpxso23 Oss te * This subject is also treated in chapter 7. * Reading Aevxai for péAawwat (Bonitz). * Fennel-stalks were used as canes by ancient schoolmasters, cp. Xen. Cyrop. ii. 3. 20. BOOK IX. 3 889° because it presses the blood away from the middle, at the point where, being round, it strikes deepest? Or would one not expect the blood for this reason to return there again, the redness being due to the rush of blood and such 30 a rush taking place towards the part which is struck ? 4 Why is it that, when a violent blow is struck with a fennel-stalk, the middle of the flesh which is struck turns white and the surrounding parts red, whereas, if an ordinary stick is used, the middle is the reddest part ?! Is it because the fennel-stalk owing to its lightness, if it strikes a hard blow, disperses the blood on the surface, and so. the part 35 from which the blood has retired has a white appearance, but the parts to which it flows in greater quantities become redder? When the part struck swells up, the dispersed blood does not readily return to its place, because it is scanty and the course which it must follow is upwards;? for it needs the force imparted by mass to make it follow an 8907 unnatural course. But blows dealt with hard objects owing to their weight and strength cause compression and crushing. The compression, therefore, produces a hollow, while the crushing causes rarity ; for crushing is a mild form of cutting and cleaving. The middle of the part struck becoming 5 hollow and rare, the blood flows into it from the surrounding surface ; for it naturally flows downwards and into the rare parts, because they give way before it. The blood collecting there naturally makes this part red, whilst the surrounding regions, from which the blood retires, turn white. 5 Why do those who are splenetic have black scars? Is it 10 because their blood is corrupted by the admixture of vitiated and watery blood from the spleen? Now the scar occupies only a small depth of the skin on the surface, but the blood, which is black because it is watery and hot, shows through the skin and gives the scar also a black appearance. Moreover, very often the scar meanwhile becomes blacker 15 and blacker ; this is due to the same cause, for owing to 1 A fuller and more satisfactory treatment of the problem of the revious chapter. a i.e. the iced must flow uphill in order to reach the centre of the swelling. H 2 8902 PROBLEMATA the weakness of the skin the blood cools, and as the heat evaporates, turns blacker. Similarly in the aged the flesh becomes blacker,! and their congenital scars are blacker 20 than those of the young; for their whole body assumes as it were the condition of a bruise owing not to the thinness of their skin but to the fact that their heat fails. Do things which cause the same effect possess the same 6 power for the production of that effect, or not? For 25 example, seeing that copper and radishes and mashed beans and ‘sea-lungs’? and clay and various other things take away bruises, do they do so in virtue of the same power? Or does copper produce this effect because of its rust, which has a medicinal value,’ and beans and ‘sea-lungs’ and clay because they have an attractive force owing to their rarity, 30and other things for various other reasons? Or is the ultimate effect the same in all these cases (for many of them possess contrary qualities, for example heat and cold‘), while the earlier effects may nevertheless be different ? Why do all other scars turn black, while those in the eye 7 are white?° Is it because they cause a change in respect 35 of colour in the parts in which they occur, and so scars which occur in the eye, which is black, must necessarily be white? Why is the blow of a fennel-stalk more painful than that 8 of some much harder instruments, if in dealing the blow one considers their comparative effects? For it would be much more natural to suppose that the stroke of a harder instrument would be more painful, for it deals a heavier 890” blow. _Is it because the flesh is pained not only by receiving a blow but also by dealing one? When it is struck by 1 Cp. 967” 13 fi. * Apparently the marine animal of de Part. Anim. 681% 18 and Hist. Anim. 5487 11. * For the supposed medicinal value of copper cp. 863% 28 and note. _* This is explained by 890°7-10, where particular examples are given in illustration of the same problem. There the instances of contraries are ya\xés, which is cold, and @awia, which is hot. Of the eee given in this chapter sadpavis corresponds most nearly to aya, 5 Cp, above, chapter 2. BOOK IX. 8 hard substances, it only receives a blow (for it yields to them because they are hard); but when it is struck by a fennel-stalk, two effects are produced—it receives a blow and it also deals one, because it does not yield owing to the lightness of the weight imposed upon it; and so the blow is of a double nature. 9 Why are thapsia! and metal ladles used to stop bruises, (the former being applied immediately, the latter at a later stage), containing as they do opposite qualities?? For a ladle is cold, as the poet says, Between his teeth the chilly bronze he bit ; * whilst thapsia is hot and burning. Does the ladle have the same effect that water has upon the fainting? For its coldness encounters the heat and prevents it from escaping out of the blood, which collects on the surface owing to the blow and congeals when the heat passes out. For just as would happen if it congealed outside, so the blood congeals near the outer surface while it is still under the skin; but# if the heat is prevented from escaping by the coldness of the bronze, the blood does not congeal, but disperses again and returns to the area from which it was collected. Thapsia being hot has the same effect; for by its heat it prevents congelation. Why are bruises dispersed by the application of copper objects such as ladles and the like?° Is it because copper is cold? It therefore prevents the escape of the heat from the blood which collects as the result of the blow, and it is the loss of heat from the surface which causes the bruise. The ladle must therefore be applied quickly ® before con- gelation takes place. Thapsia, too, mixed with honey is a good remedy for the same reason; for being hot it prevents the blood from becoming cold. 1 Cp. 86425 and note. 2 Cp. above, chapter 6. * Homer, //ad, v. 75. 4 Reading 6€ éfévac (W.D.R.) for diefievae and putting a colon before xwAvOévros, and deleting the comma after Oeppov. ® Cp. above, chapter 9. 8 This hardly agrees with 8go? 8, 890 8go0” 30 35 891° 5 PROBLEMATA Why is it that if a wound occurs several times in the 1 same place, the scar turns black? Is it because, whenever a wound is dealt, the part affected is always weak and becomes weaker the more often it is wounded? Now that which is weak is chilled and full of moisture; therefore it has a black appearance. Again! large and inveterate wounds form black scars, and to receive frequent wounds is equivalent to having one wound for a long time. Why do we apply metal ladles to bruises?” Is it because, 12 when we are struck, the part affected is cooled and the heat leaves it? So the application of the ladle, the material of which, being copper, is cold, prevents the heat from escaping. Why is it that hairs do not grow onscars? Is it because 13 the pores, from which the hairs grow, become blocked up and displaced ? Why do blows cause swelling and discoloration? Is it 14 because the moisture in the part affected is dispersed and, after breaking its way into the adjoining regions, recoils again and collects owing to the conglutination of the moisture ? Also if any small veins are burst, a collection ot bloodshot matter is formed. " Putting a full stop after @atvera: and reading eira (ri) for e? r& (C* according to Bekker reads «(ra). > Cp. above, chapters g and Io. 891° BOOKGX A SUMMARY OF PHYSICAL PROBLEMS 1 Why is it that some‘animals cough, while others do not, for example a man coughs, but an ox does not? Is it because in most animals-the excretion is directed to some 10 other part, but in man to this part? Or is it because in man the matter in the brain is very copious and liquid, and coughing occurs when phlegm flows down? 2 Why is it that in man alone of the animals blood flows from the nostrils? Is it because the matter in his brain is very copious and liquid, whence the veins, becoming full of excretion, send forth a stream through the ducts? For 15 unhealthy blood (that is, blood which is mixed with excre- tions from the brain) is thinner than pure blood and resembles lymph.! 3 Why is it that some animals are fat under the flesh, others in the flesh, and others in both these places? Is it 20 because in those whose flesh is dense the moisture collects between the skin and the flesh, because the skin there is naturally loose,’ and this moisture being concocted turns into fat? Those, on the other hand, who have rare flesh and a tightly fitting * skin, become fat in the flesh; while those who have both these characteristics are fat both in and 25 under the flesh. 4 Why are boys and women less liable to white leprosy than men, and middled-aged women more than young? Is it because white leprosy is due to the escape of breath, and the bodies of boys are dense and do not allow the passage of breath, and those of women do so less than those of men, 30 for the breath is diverted into the catamenza? The density BOO 1146. O50" 87. 2 Reading deat 7d ratty etvae 7d Seppa adeoros pice (Bekker). 5 Reading with Bussemaker mpoceutis for mpoeotos. 891° 35 8o1° § = on PROBLEMATA of their flesh is shown by its smoothness. But the bodies of middle-aged and old women allow the passage of breath ; for they alone, like old buildings, have a loose structure of their component parts. Why is it that man alone has white leprosy?1 Is it 5 because he is the thinnest-skinned and at the same time the fullest of breath? amongst the animals? An indication of this is the fact that leprosy appears most abundantly and soonest on the parts of the body where the skin is thinnest. Or, while this is true, is there a further reason, namely, that in man alone of the animals the hair turns grey? For in leprosy the hair becomes grey,’ and so it is impossible for leprosy to occur in those in whom the hair does not turn grey. Why is it that goats and sheep yield the most milk, although their bodies are not the largest, whereas women and cows produce proportionately less? Is it because in the latter two cases the available material is used up to form bulk, whilst in the other animals it goes into excretions, and in sheep and goats the residue of the excretion all becomes milk? Or is it because sheep and goats are more prolific than the large animals, and so draw off more excretion, because they have more offspring to nourish ? Or is it because owing to the weakness of their bodies more excretion is formed during the period of gestation, and the milk comes from the excretion ? Why is it that in some animals (goats, for example) a change of water causes a change in their colour, which assimilates to that of other animals in the new locality, whereas with other animals (man, for example) this is not so? Or, to put the question generally, why do some animals change and others not (the crow, for example)? Do those animals not change in whom the element of moisture does not predominate, birds, for example, which consequently have no bladder?* Why is it that while such creatures do 1 Cp. below, chapter 33. ? Reading mrevputwdeoraroy (Richards), ° Cp. G. A. 784° 26. * Cp. P. A. 671% 15 and W. Ogle’s note. 6 7 BOOK X. 7 8gi° not themselves change, yet their offspring do so? Is it 20 because the offspring is weaker than its parents ? 8 Why are males usually larger than females? Is it because they are hotter,! and heat is productive of growth? Or is it because the male is complete in all its parts, whereas the female is defective? Or is it because the male takes a long time to attain perfection, the female a short time ? 9 Why is it that some animals bear their young quickly, 25 but in others the period of gestation is a long one? Is it because the longer-lived animals come to perfection more slowly? It is the longer-lived animals that take a long time to bear their young. This is not, however, true of the longest lived of all animals; for example, the horse is slower in bearing its young but shorter-lived than man. The reason of this is the hardness of the uterus; for the 3° uterus of a mare may be compared to a dry soil which does not readily bring the crops to maturity. 10 Why is it that the young of all other animals resemble their parents in nature more closely than do those of man? Is it because man’s mental condition is more varied at the moment of sexual intercourse, and so the offspring varies according to the condition of the male? and female parents ? 35 The other animals, or most of them, are wholly absorbed in the sexual act ;* further, owing to this avidity, impregnation does not usually take place. II Why is it that fair men and white horses usually have 892% grey eyes? Is it because there are three colours in eyes, black, greenish, and grey, and the colour of the eyes follows that of the body, resulting in this case in greyness ? 5 12 For what reason are there dwarfs? Or to put the question more generally, why are some creatures quite large, others small? Let us examine the latter question. The causes of smallness are two, either space or nourishment—space, if it 1 A much-disputed point, cp. P. 4. 648° 30 ff. * The Teubner text prints dre for 6 re. 8 Reading mpos adt@ rovr@ (Richards). 4 Lit. ‘as in goats’ eyes’; for the meaning of alywmds see D’A. W. Thompson's note on H. A. 492° 3. 8927 PROBLEMATA be narrow, and nourishment, if it be scanty ; as happens ‘o when attempts are made to make animals small after their birth, for example by keeping puppies in quail-cages. Those who suffer from lack of space become pygmies; for they have width and depth corresponding to the dimensions of their parents, but they are quite small in stature. The reason of this is that owing to the narrowness of the space in which they are confined the straight lines become crushed and bent. So pygmies are like figures painted on shops which are short in stature but are seen to be of ordinary width and depth. Those who fail to come to perfection from lack of nourishment clearly have the limbs of children, 20 and one sometimes sees persons who are very small and yet perfectly proportioned, like Melitaean terriers.'_ The reason is that the process of growth has a different effect from that of space. > or Why is it that some animals come into being from the 13 sexual intercourse of animals with one another, others from the compounding of certain elements—a process resembling the original production of their species?” Just 2,as the writers on natural phenomena explain the first origin of animals as being due to powerful changes and movements in the world and universe;* so now, if it is to happen again, some similar movements must take place. For the beginning of anything is the most important part, being indeed half of the whole;° and in this case the seed is the beginning. The reason then why ° [e) 3 ’ Also mentioned in A.A. 612” 10, where D’A. W. Thompson renders ‘Maltese dogs:’; but according to Pliny (V. H. iii. 26. 30) they came originally from an island off Dalmatia (now called Meleda). They were a common form of lap-dog; cp. Theophr. Char. 21, Anth, Pal. vii, 211. They frequently appear on vases, e.g. one figured in Ann. del? Inst. 1852, which has the inscription MeAcraie, and shows a long-haired dog with a bushy tail and a sharp nose, rather of the type of a ‘Spitz’ or ‘Pomeranian’: such dogs also figure on coins and gems, see Imhoof-Blumer and Keller, Zver- wad Pflan- zenbilder des klass. Altertums, Plates I. 45; Il. 29; XV. 33, 34. * Cp. below, chapter 65. * Omitting the comma after yevéoOa and reading mavrds (rds) peyd- Aas, oUTw@ Kal pip, ‘ Putting a full stop after kuwncecs. ° Hesiod, Works and Days, 40. ° Reading atriy (rod) rowidra (Richards). BOOK. X13 892° small animals which are not produced by sexual inter- course resemble the species as it originally came into being, is the smallness of the seed; for the smaller a thing is, the smaller is its first beginning. So the changes even of this are sufficient to produce a seed for it.! And this is what actually happens; for it is under conditions of 35 change* that such creatures usually come into being. In the larger animals a greater change is necessary for their production. 14 Why is it that some animals are prolific, such as the pig, the dog, and the hare, whilst others are not so, for 892° instance man and the lion?’ Is it because the former class has a number of wombs which they desire to fill and moulds into which‘ the semen is distributed, while with the latter the opposite is the case? 15 Why has man a smaller distance between his eyes in proportion to his size than any other animal ? Is it because 5 man follows the law of nature most closely ° and perception is naturally of that which is in front,” since it is necessary to see beforehand that to which the movement is directed ? Now the greater the distance between the eyes, the more will the sight incline sideways. So if the sight is to accord with the law of nature, the distance between the eyes 10 ought to be as small as possible, for then it will travel most directly forward. Further, the other animals must necessarily turn their gaze sideways, since they do not possess hands; their eyes therefore are farther apart, espe- cially those of sheep, because they generally advance bending their heads downwards. _ wv 16 Why is it that the other animals seldom or never emit semen during sleep? Is it because no animal except man sleeps on its back and no emission of semen takes place except in that position?’ Or is it because the other 1 The text here appears to be corrupt and gives no very satisfactory sense. GRA 2 i.e. by decay, cp. G. A. 715725. & (Ciny G. A. 771% 14 ff. + Reading e’s ds (W. D.R.) 5 Cp. de Incess. Anim. 706” to. ° Reading rot éumpoobev (so also Richards). 7 Cp. Theophr. de Lassit., § 16. 892 20 25 30 35 fo 893 on PROBLEMATA animals dream Jess than man, and the emission of semen only takes place when the imagination is stirred ? Why is it that some animals move their heads and others 17 not? Is it because some have no necks! and so cannot move their heads ? Why does man sneeze more than the other animals ?? 18 Is it because in him the ducts are wide through which the breath and scent pass in? For it is with these, when they fill with breath, that he sneezes. That these ducts are wide is shown by the fact that man has a weaker sense of smell than any other animal; and the narrower the ducts, the keener is the sense of smell. Since, therefore, the moisture, the evaporation of which causes sneezing, enters in larger quantities and more often into wide ducts, and man more than any other animal has such ducts, he might naturally be expected to sneeze* most often. Or is it because his nostrils are particularly short and so the heated moisture can quickly turn into breath, whereas in the other animals, owing to the length of their nostrils, it cools before it can evaporate ? Why is it that in no animal is the tongue of a fatty 19 consistency? Is it because that which is fat is dense, whereas the tongue is naturally rare in order that it may recognize different flavours ? Why is it that females pass urine with an effort, but 20 males without an effort? Is it because in the female the bladder is farther away both in depth of position and in distance, since the womb is situated between the fundament and the bladder? It therefore requires a greater effort to drive the urine owing to the distance of the womb; and the requisite force is exercised by an effort of the breath. Why is it that all such animals as do not fly shed their a1 winter coats, except the pig? The dog, for example, does so, and the ox. Is it because the pig is very hot and e.g. fishes and serpents, cp. P. A. 664% 20, 686% 1, 691» 30, * This problem is more fully treated in chapter 54; it is repeated in XXxiil. 10. * Reading mrapvvowro for mrdpvowro. BOOK X. 21 893° its hairs grow out of a hot substance (for that which is fat is hot)? In the other animals the hair is shed because either the moisture cools or else the natural heat cannot concoct the’ nourishment. But the pig? does not shed its hair, either because the moisture in it undergoes no 10 change or because its nourishment is properly concocted ; for whenever any cause is present to make it shed its hair, the fat is sufficient to prevent it. Sheep and men are unaffected owing to the quantity and density of their hair ; for the cold cannot penetrate deep enough to congeal the 1; moisture or to prevent the heat from concocting it. 2 Why is it that in sheep the hair grows again softer when it is plucked out, but in man it is harder? Is it because the hair of sheep grows out of the surface, and so can be plucked out without causing pain, the source 20 of its nourishment, which is in the flesh, remaining un- impaired? So the pores* being opened, the excretions evaporate more readily, and the wool receives the natural nourishment of the flesh, the latter being fed by soft, sweet nourishment. The hair of man, on the other hand, since it grows from a great depth, can only be plucked out by 2; force and painfully. This is shown by the fact that it draws blood with it. The place therefore from which it is plucked is wounded and scarred. So at last the hair ceases to grow on those who pluck it out, and as long as it does grow again, it grows hard, because all the nourishing food in the flesh fails, and it is from the excre- 30 tions of this food that the hair grows. This can be illustrated by the fact that in all those who inhabit a southerly clime the hair is hard, because the exterior heat penetrates deeply and vaporizes the well-concocted nourish- ment; but the hair of those who dwell in northern climes is soft, because in them the blood and sweet humours are nearer the surface, for which reason also they have a 35 healthy complexion. 1 Reading rerrew (rijv) tpopyy (Bussemaker). 2 Reading (4 S€ ts) 7) dua...) bia «rd. These changes are demanded by the sense and supported by the Latin version of T. G._ 8 dvo.xOevtwy seems to require a substantive such as roy mépev in agreement with it. The Latin version renders meatibus patefactis. 893° PROBLEMATA Why is it that in sheep the longer the hair grows the 23 harder it is, whereas in man it is softer? Is it because the hair of sheep, obtaining the nourishment described above,! receives less food because it is far removed from 4o the source of it, and the nourishment already present in 893° it easily evaporates out of it owing to the heat as a result of incomplete concoction?? And as the hair dries it becomes harder;? for it is the moisture which makes it soft. Human hair, on the other hand, receives less nourish- ment but is situated nearer to the source of it;* and the nourishment is more thoroughly concocted because it is less abundant, and, being concocted, it makes the hair 5 softer, because anything that is concocted is softer than that which is unconcocted; for human hair is derived more’ from excretion than that of sheep. That concocted matter is softer than unconcocted® is shown by the fact that the wool of young sheep is softer than that of old. io Why is it that thick-haired men and birds with thick feathers are lustful?7 Is it because they are naturally hot and moist? Now both these characteristics are necessary for sexual intercourse; for the heat causes excretion, and the moisture is the form which the excretion takes. Lame men are lustful for the same reason as birds;* for, owing to the deficiencies of their legs, the nourishment is carried 15 downwards in small quantities only, but travels into the i.e. in ll, 22-4 above. Reading amewWiay with Bussemaker. Reading oxdypdrepa (T. G. has durtores). The sentence ai dé ray avOparev eXattw pév, waddov S€ THs apxas is obviously incomplete as it stands and the required sense must be supplied from the Latin version of T. G. and the implied contrast with the hair of sheep given in 238 ff., and something like ai 8 rap avOporwy éhatra pev Céxover ty tpopyy), paddov b€ ths apxns Céyyitov- Tat) must be restored. ° Reading mAciov for melorov. _ © This onpetoy cannot refer to the sentence immediately preceding it, with which it has no connexion; it must therefore refer to ravra yap Ta mereppeva kth; the Latin version of T.G. inverts the order of the last two sentences. : te problem is partly identical with iv. 31; cp. also Physiogn. 06? 18. * Reading dia rd airo 8€ Kai of Cdprbes Adyvoe Kai of) xodol dvdpes ; cp. 880? 4, moO wD 24 BOOK X. 24 893 upper region of the body in large quantities, and is there converted into semen. 25 Why has man no mane? Is it because he has a beard, and so the nourishment consisting of the necessary excre- tion, which in animals goes into the mane, in man goes into the beard ? 266 Why is it that all animals have an even number of 20 feet?! Is it because it is impossible to move (except by jumping), unless some part is at rest? Since, then, pro- gression involves two things,? namely, movement and rest, we immediately get here a pair? and an even number. Quadrupeds have two more legs;* for they move two, while the other two are at rest. Six-footed animals have :; an additional pair,’ of which one moves while the other is at rest. 2 27. Why is it that in horses and asses hair grows out of scars, but not in man?’ Is it because in the other animals the skin is part of the flesh, but in man it is only as it were a condition of the flesh? For in man the surface 30 of the flesh seems to become harder through cooling and resembles what we call the crust of boiled meal;* just, then, as this crust is really only boiled meal, so what is called man’s skin would really be only flesh. Now when a man receives a wound or is chafed, the result is that his flesh becomes denser; and so, the surface of the flesh s: having undergone a change, the wounded parts do not assume the same nature as the original skin; and, as the flesh has undergone a change, it is not to be wondered at that what grew from it no longer does so—a pheno- menon also occurring in what is called baldness, which =e 1 Cp. below, chapter 30; also //, A. 48922, and de Incessu Anim. 708% 21 ff., which is clearly the source of this problem. 2 Reading ék Ovoiv rivoiv avaykn Tiy mopetay eivat. 8 $€ must be omitted as a dittograph of dvo. * Reading kai rerpdmoda duo ére (tor didre) mAetous, cp. 1. 25. 5 Placing a full stop after éorjKact. ® of €€ is clearly corrupt, since of can only agree with mdses under- stood, which gives no sense. oi is perhaps a corruption due to the influence of oi dé dvo. What the sense requires is kai €£aroda kai dAXovs dvo ér1, and this has been translated above. 7 Cp. below, chapter 29. EEG pada Agu ye 893° PROBLEMATA is also due to a corruption and change in the surface of 4o the flesh. When, however, beasts of burden have been 894° chafed and recover again, the parts of the body affected fill out again with the same substance, but it is weaker than it was before; and since their skin too is a part of them, the hair (which grows out of the skin) must come forth and grow, but it is white, because the skin 5 which was formed is weaker than the original skin, and white hair is the weakest kind of hair. Why is it that among the other animals twins though 28 differing in sex are just as likely to survive, but this is not so with the young of man?! Is it because human twins are particularly weak, for man naturally produces 10 only one offspring at a time? Now in twins it is unnatural to find a diversity of sex; and so what is most contrary to nature is also weakest. Why is it that in horses and asses hair grows out of 29 scars, but not in man?? Is it because the scar impedes the growth of the hair, either owing to the condensation of the flesh or because its nutrition is impaired? In man, 15 therefore, it absolutely prevents the growth owing to the weakness of the hair; but in horses it does not prevent, but merely impairs, the growth. Why have animals an even number of feet?* Is it 30 because in anything that moves something must necessarily be at rest, and this could not happen if there were an odd 20 number of feet (for* it was the arrangement of the feet in pairs which originally made movement possible) ? Why is it that animals are asleep for a shorter time than 31 they are awake, and their sleep is not continuous? Is it because all the excretion is not concocted at the same time, but, when some is concocted, the animal is relieved and wakes up? Again, they more often wake up when the region in which the excretion is concocted becomes a5 cold; for it quickly and frequently ceases to do its work, : Cp. Ht. A. 584° 36 ff. ? Cp. above, chapter 27. Cp. above, chapter 26. * Reading eizep for émep (Richards). BOOK X. 31 894° and this cessation causes awakening. Sleep not unnatu- rally ' seems to be pleasant, because it gives us rest; but the rest which we take in sleep does not last longer than the time taken by our natural activities, nor do we eat for a longer period than that during which we abstain from food, in spite of the fact that eating is pleasanter than fasting. 32 Why is it that some animals imitate their parents imme- 30 diately after birth, whilst others, like man, do so late, or hardly at all, or never? Is it because some quickly attain a state of physical perfection,” whilst others are late in doing so, and some are without a perception of what is for their good, whilst others possess such a perception ? Those therefore which possess both these qualities, namely, perception of what is for their good and physical perfec- 35 tion, imitate their parents, but those who have not both these qualities do not do so; for physical and perceptive powers are both requisite. 33. Why is it that white leprosy does not occur in animals other than man ?* Is it because, while it is a disease which afflicts other animals, only in man does the hair and skin turn partially white? (But, if so, one might raise the question 894 why diversity of colour in animals occurs at birth and not afterwards.) Or is it because the skin of other animals is hard, whereas man has naturally very thin skin?) Now white leprosy is an excretion of breath,* which in the other animals is prevented from escaping by the thickness of their skin. 5 34 Why is it that in white leprosy the hair turns grey, but it does not necessarily follow that leprosy is always present where there is grey hair?° Is it because the hair grows from the skin, and greyness is as it were a corruption of the hair? When therefore the skin is in a morbid condition, the hair that grows from it is necessarily affected ; but when 10 the hair is unhealthy the skin is not necessarily so. 1 Reading as eixis for ovdé eikds: the Latin version renders non tmmierito. ; 2 +6 yvopitew is certainly corrupt and has probably come into the text asa gloss upon alc@jouw, Thr émrédeow TOU O@paTos Or its equivalent must be restored from 1]. 35. (Richards suggests ro 8 :diCew.) 3 Cp. above, chapter 5. * Cp. 891% 28. 5 The source of this problem appears to be G. A. 784° 25. 645-25 I 894” PROBLEMATA Why is it that some animals are ill-tempered after bearing 35 young, dogs, for example, and pigs, but others are not noticeably so, for instance women and sheep ? Is it because those animals which are full of excretions’ are mild- tempered, for that which causes them pain passes out at the 15 time of birth? Those,? on the other hand, who in bearing young lose healthy material, are made irritable by the reduced condition in which they are ; just as hens are bad- tempered, not just when they have laid, but when they are sitting, from want of food. Why is it that eunuchs, when they are emasculated, in 36 20 other respects change into the likeness of the female,—for they have the voice, the shapelessness,* and the looseness of joints which characterize women, and so undergo a violent change, as do other animals when castrated (in bulls and rams, however, we find the horns assuming contrary forms, the reason being that their females have contrary kinds of 25 horns, and so bulls when they are castrated grow larger horns and rams smaller horns)—in respect of size, however, alone eunuchs change into the likeness of the male, for they become larger? Now size is characteristic of the male, for the female is smaller than the male. Or is it not after all a change into the likeness of the female rather than the male? For it is not a change in every dimension, but only in height, whereas the male is characterized by width and 30 depth as well; for this is what his full growth involves. Furthermore, as is the female to the male, so within the female sex is the maiden to the woman; for the latter has reached the full nobility of form, while the former has not yet done so. It is into the likeness of ¢#ezr nature * then that the eunuch changes; for their growth is in height. So Homer well says, Stature chaste Artemis gave them,” * Such as women and sheep, cp. #7. A. 584° 6. ? Omitting Sore or reading rovrots in its place. * X® clearly preserves the right reading here, duop$lay. dé¢rnra has come into the text as a gloss upon dowjy AnduKnv. * Reading «is rijy rovr@py ody (gicw) peraBddXec (Richards), > Homer, Od. xx. 71. BOOK X. 36 894” as being able to give what, being a maiden, she herself 35 possessed. When, therefore, a eunuch changes in size, he does not change into the likeness of the male ; for the change is not in the direction of physical perfection, but eunuchs increase in size only in respect of height. 37 +Why is it that eunuchs either never suffer from varicocele, or do so less than others? Is it because, by their being 895% castrated, their nature changes into that of persons lack- ing generative power? Now boys and women lack this power, and neither has varicose veins except women very occasionally, on 38 Why is man better able to utter many voices, while other animals of one and the same species utter only one voice ? Has man too! really only one voice, but many forms of speech ?? g And why has man different forms of speech in different places,” while the other animals have not? Is it because men in their speech make use of a number of letters, but the other animals employ either none or only two or three consonants ? (Now it is consonants combined with vowels that form speech.) Now speaking is signifying something not merely by the voice but by certain conditions of the voice, and not merely to signify pain or pleasure; and it is the letters which regulate these conditions. But children express what they want to say just in the same way as wild beasts; for young children cannot yet make use of the letters in speech. ° o Why is it that of all animals man alone is apt to hesitate in his speech ?4+ Is it because he is also liable to be dumb, and hesitancy of speech is a form of dumbness, or at any rate the organ of speech is not perfect? Or is it because man partakes more of rational speech, while the other animals only possess voice, and hesitancy of speech, as its 5 1 Reading (i) kai werd. (So also Richards.) T.G. has aw hominuim etiam vox unu est ? 2 On duidexros and dary see $98” 30, and cp. H. A. 536” 1. 8 Reading avrn (cAAn) GAAn (W. D.R.). * Cp. below, Book xi. 55. 1e2 895" PROBLEMATA name implies,! is simply? being unable to explain one’s meaning continuously ? 20 Why is it that man more than the other animals is apt to 41 be lame from birth? Is it because the legs of animals are strong (for quadrupeds and birds have bony and sinewy legs), but human legs are fleshy, and so owing to their softness they more easily become damaged through move- ment ?° Or is it because in man alone of animals the period ; of gestation varies? For he may be born after the seventh or the eighth or the tenth month.4 For the other animals there is one fixed time for coming to perfection without any further delay ;* but in man the period of delay ® is long, and so, when the foetus moves, its extremities being soft 3o are more’ liable to become broken in the longer period. is) “Jt Why have eunuchs sore and ulcerated legs? Is it because 42 this is also characteristic of women, and eunuchs are effeminate? Or, while this is true, is the cause in women as well this, that the heat has a downward tendency? (Menstruation shows that this is so.) So neither eunuchs s nor women grow thick hair, owing to the presence of copious moisture in them. w “Jt Why is it that no animal except man suffers from gall- 43 stones ?® Is it because in beasts of burden and cloven-hoofed animals the ducts of the bladder are wide? Those animals which produce their young alive not immediately but after 8g5° an interval, like certain of the fishes,’ never have bladders, but the sediment which might form gall-stones is forced into the bowels (as happens also in birds), and so easily passes out with the excrement. But man has a bladder and a stalk '° to the bladder, which is narrow in proportion to his ' i.e. laxvopevos from icxew and evn, cp. 903% 38 f. of icxvsgwrvar toxovtat Tov maveiy, * Reading kara 76 dvopa oddéev i) ot for ob Kara 7d bvopa év 4} oddé. * i.e. in the uterus before birth. Gp Gardea7 72. ate © Reading ov d:atpivvace (Richards). ° ev wAndea, if retained, must be used here of time, but some such reading as ev ry pynrpa, ‘in the uterus’, seems to be demanded by the context. (Richards makes the same suggestion.) " Reading mAciov for melo. PACpy Gaede loro: * Cp. P. A. 670” Io, 6719 15, 676% 30, ” Cp. A. A. 497% 20, 24. BOOK X. 43 size ; so, because he has this part, the earthy matter is 5 forced into the bladder (and so chamber-pots become discoloured by it) and, owing to the heat in that region, it becomes concocted and thickens still more and remains there and increases owing to the narrowness of the urethra ; for the earthy sediment, being unable to make its way out easily, coheres together and forms a gall-stone. Why is it that beasts of burden and cattle and horned animals and birds do not eruct?! Isit owing to the dryness of their stomachs? For the moisture is quickly used up and percolates through; whereas eructation results when the moisture remains and evaporates. In animals with long , manes and tails,* owing to the length of their necks, the breath tends to travel downwards, and therefore they generally break wind backwards. Birds and horned animals neither eruct nor break wind; and, ruminating animals do not eruct, because they have several stomachs and the so-called ‘reticulum’;* and so the breath finds a passage up and down through many channels, and the z moisture is taken up before it can become vaporized and cause either eructation or breaking of wind. 45 Why is it that tame animals are invariably found also in a wild state, but wild animals are not always found also in a tame condition?# For even men certainly exist in a wild state in some places,’ and wild dogs are found in 2 India and horses elsewhere; but lions and leopards and vipers and many other animals are never found in a tame state. Is it because the inferior condition is more easily acquired at first and it is easier to degenerate into it, since it is not the original but the ultimate nature which is difficult to attain to at once?" For this reason all tame animals are 1 This problem is quoted by Apollonius, /7/7s¢, J7irad., as from the huotka mpoBdrpara of Aristotle. : * This class is enumerated in #. A. 491° 1 ff. 3 Or ‘second stomach’, see H.A. 5074-8. * Cp. //, A. 488 30. ° Cp. P. A. 6435 (but in 4.4. 488*27 man is said never to be ‘wild’). Darwin (Descent of Man, pp. 41, 42) insists on the fact that it is erroneous to regard man as more domesticated than the other animals. ; ; ® This statement seems to contain a glimmering of the Doctrine olf Evolution. re) bh 895 30 to or 896° fe) PROBLEMATA at first wild rather than tame (for example the child is greedier and more quick-tempered than the man), but physically weaker. So we find the same state of affairs in the products of nature as in those of the arts. For among the latter there are always badly made objects, and the bad are more numerous than the good, beds for instance and garments and the like ; and, where a good object is produced, it is always possible to find also a bad one, but, where a bad object is produced, it is not also possible always to find a good one. This can be seen from an examination of the works of the primitive painters and sculptors; for in their day there was not yet any good painting or sculpture any- where, but only inferior work. So likewise nature always produces inferior specimens and in a greater number,’ and superior specimens in a smaller number and in some cases not at all. Now the tame is superior and the wild inferior. It is, suppose, easier for nature—not the primitive nature but that towards which animals develop —to make the good kinds also tame ;? but the opposite kinds never, or scarcely ever, become tame, and it is only under certain conditions of locality:and time that sconer® or later owing to a general admixture of circumstances all animals can become tame. The same thing happens in plants of all kinds;* those which are garden plants are also found in a wild state, but it is impossible for all to be cultivated, but some are so peculiarly conditioned in many respects in their natural soil that, though neglected and left wild, they grow better and more like cultivated plants than those which are carefully tilled in other soil. Why is it that men have large navels, whereas in the other animals they are inconspicuous? Is it because in the latter, owing to the long period of gestation,® they wither 1 Omitting kat mdelous. 2 Reading vac dé ob rH €& apyis GAN eq Hy, oluat, paov roreiv (ra) vTrovdaia Kal NE pie * Reading dpr: for dpriov, and placing the comma after woré instead of after aptiov. * With the whole of this passage cp. de Plantis, 819° 29 ff., and Theophin 7p vaitino. 2. ° i.e. the period of gestation is longer in proportion to the time from conception to the full maturity of the young. 46 BOOK X. 46 896" off and project outwards and swell all up into sores, and so 1; the navel sometimes even becomes mis-shapen ?! Now man comes forth from the womb in an imperfect condition, and so his navel comes away still full of moisture and blood. That some animals are perfect and others imperfect at birth is shown by the fact that some animals can fend for them- selves, but children require looking after. 47 Why is it that some animals copulate only once, others 20 frequently, and some only at certain seasons of the year and others at no fixed time ?? For example, man does so at all times but wild animals only occasionally, and the wild boar only does so once but the domesticated pig frequently. Is. it the effect of nourishment and warmth and exercise, since ‘Cypris depends on fullness’? Again, the same species bears young once in some localities but several times in others ; for instance, the sheep in Magnesia and Libya have young twice a year. The reason is the prolonged period of gestation; for animals, when their desire is satisfied, feel desire no longer, just as, when they have fed, they no longer desire food. Also animals when pregnant feel less desire for sexual intercourse, because the menstrual purgation does not take place. we uv 48 Why is it that men who have porous teeth are generally 30 short-lived ?° Is it a sign that the skull is thick? For the brain is weak if it is not well ventilated, and so, being moist, it quickly decays, just as all other things decay if they are not in motion and cannot evaporate. For this reason too man has very thick hair upon the head, and the male is longer- lived than the female because of the sutures in his skull.® LSP) cr 1 The sense is unsatisfactory, since the latter part of the sentence seems to contain arguments which imply a prominence of the navel. 2 Cp. Plutarch, Quaest. Nat. 21. Ko : 8 A quotation from a lost play of Euripides; cp. Nauck?, p. 647, no. 895. 240, 1.4573" 30, Choy SS oaks 1k ‘ 6 Which permit more evaporation; cp. ?. 4. 653° 1 ff. and W. Ogle’s note. 896° PROBLEMATA But we must next consider length of life in relation to other conditions.! Why then are men long-lived who have a cut right across 49 their hands?? Is it because animals whose limbs are badly articulated are shortest-lived, aquatic animals for example? 896° And if those which are badly articulated are short-lived, clearly those that are well articulated must be the opposite. Now the latter are those in which even those parts are best articulated which are by nature badly articulated; and the inside of the hand is the least well articulated part of the body. 5 Why is it that man alone squints, or at any rate does so 50 more than any other animal ?* Is it because he alone, or more than other animals, is liable to epilepsy * in infancy, when distortion of the vision also always begins ? Why is man more affected by smoke than other animals? 51 Is it because he is most prone to shed tears, and shedding tears is one of the effects of smoke? 10 Why does horse take pleasure in and desire horse, and 52 man take pleasure in man, and generally why do animals delight in animals which are akin to and like them? For every ° animal is not equally beautiful, and desire is of the beautiful. The beautiful then ought to be pleasanter; but in actual fact it is truer that not every kind of beauty is pleasant, nor are pleasure and the beautiful equally’ pleasing to all men ; for example, one creature takes greater pleasure in eating or drinking and another in sexual inter- course. The question why each creature prefers and takes = or 1 The Latin version of T.G is no doubt right in rendering here, an in ceteris Quogue tdem est cogitandum ; the reference being to the following problem, which is coupled to the present chapter by the connecting particle d¢, and probably also chapter 64. ? i.e. the so-called ‘line of life’, cp. also xxxiv. 10, 2 Cpaxxxin2oee7. * éxidnmrov should probably be read here for \ywrdv, cp. 9607 10 and note. ° Reading dériovy (Platt) for dre war. ° Omitting rd kaov kat 7d 480, which in its original form, 7d kadov Kat 7/60, was doubtless a marginal variant of KddXos Hdd. 7 Reading acu (dpoiws) 7 jdov,) to complete the sense. BOOK X. 52 greatest pleasure in sexual intercourse with a creature that is akin to it is dealt with elsewhere ;! but to add that what is akin is also most beautiful is not true.2 But we regard as beautiful that which is pleasing with a view to sexual intercourse, because, when we feel desire, we delight in looking upon the object of our desire. And indeed the same thing happens in other forms of desire ; for example, when we are thirsty we take greater pleasure in the sight of something to drink. So that which is beautiful in view of a certain use of it seems to be most pleasant because we particularly desire it. (But this is not true of that which is beautiful in itself,as is proved by the fact that even grown men appear to us beautiful, when we look at them without ® any idea of sexual intercourse. Do they then appear beautiful in such a way as to give our eyes more pleasure than those who are of an age for sexual intercourse? There is no reason why they should not, provided we do not happen to feel a desire for sexual intercourse.) Thus something to drink appears to us as particularly good ; for, if we happen to be thirsty, we shall see it with considerable pleasure. 53. Why is it that in man the front of the body is more thickly covered with hair than the posterior portion, but in quadrupeds the posterior part is hairiest?* Is it because all two-footed animals have the front part of the body more thickly covered? For the birds resemble man in this respect. Or is nature always wont to protect the weaker parts and is every creature weak in some respect ?® Now in ali quadrupeds the posterior portions are weaker than the tront parts owing to their position; for they are more liable to suffer from cold and heat; but in man the front portions of the body are weaker and suffer likewise under these conditions. 1 Viz. in iv. 15 and 26. ; 2 Restoring the MS. reading ovxért, which is more idiomatic than OUK €oTL, 8 To make sense of this passage we must read (ov) mpos thy auvovaiay Brévact, the negative here being implied by ei pi) érOupovr- res Tiyouev in |. 27. (So too Sylburg and Bussemaker.) 4 The source of this problem is clearly ?. A. 6587 16 ff. 5 rémov should perhaps be read for rpdzroyp. 896° is) ie) 30 897° PROBLEMATA 8972 Why is it that man sneezes more than any other animal?! 54 Is it because he also suffers most from running at the nose? The reason of this is that, the heat being situated in the region of the heart and being naturally disposed to rise upwards, in the other animals its natural direction is to- wards the shoulders and thence, splitting up owing to refraction, it travels partly into the neck and head and partly into the backbone and flanks, because these parts are all in the same straight line and parallel to the ground on which the animal stands. Now the heat,’ as it travels along, distributes the moisture uniformly to these parts 1oalike; for the moisture follows the heat. Four-footed animals therefore do not suffer either much from running at the nose or sneeze; for sneezing is due to the rush either of a mass of breath, when moisture evaporates more quickly than the body, or of unconcocted moisture (hence it precedes a cold in the head);* and these forms of moisture are not found in the other animals, because the 15 rush of heat is equally distributed between the fore and hind parts of an animal. Man being naturally, like the plants, at a right angle to the ground on which he stands, the result is that a very copious and violent rush of heat takes place in the direction of the head, and the heat in its course thither rarefies and heats the ducts in the region of the head. Now these ducts being in this condition 2o are better able to receive the moisture than those leading downwards from the heart. When, therefore, a man hap- pens to have become in too moist a condition and to have been cooled off externally,* the result is that the heat obtaining nourishment and collecting within increases, and as it does so it is carried to the head and the ducts there. 25 Into these the moisture, which is thin and unconcocted, follows the heat and fills them up and causes cold in the head and likewise sneezing. For at the beginning of a cold the heat, being carried along in advance of the or 1 Cp. above, chapter 18, and xyxili. 10. ? Omitting 76 cepa, which has probably come in as a gloss. * Punctuating drérrwy (86 mpd tev Katdppwy ylyverat), & xTd., and taking vypév as the antecedent of 4. * Putting the comma after instead of before ¢£wder. BOOK X. 54 897° moisture and inflating the ducts, causes sneezing by the expulsion of the breath and by the drawing off! of those humours which are light and pungent. Hence it happens 30 that after sneezing from a cold in the head one wipes away watery matter. These all* having been set in motion, the continuous and solid® humours follow closely upon them and block up the ducts in the region of the head and nostrils. If they become swollen and distended, they cause pain in the region of the head. That the ducts are blocked is shown by the fact that no breath can pass out through them;* so those who suffer from running at the nose neither sneeze nor can they use their sense of smell. Sneezing unaccompanied by running at the nose is due to the same causes, but has some slight and insig- nificant origin; and so the humours, being collected by 897 the heat and vaporized by it owing to their small mass, are precipitated down the nostrils. The noise made by the breath is due quite as much to the violence of its rush as to its quantity. For the heat, being carried along in a direct line to the brain and rushing into it, is refracted 5 into the nostrils, because the ducts there lead out from the brain. The rush made by the breath in breaking out into the nostrils, being unnatural, is consequently violent, and therefore makes loud noises. Amongst the other animals birds are most liable to running at the nose, because they 10 most resemble man in form; but they are less liable to it than man, because they usually hold their heads down, since they derive their food from the ground. co or b 55 Why are marine animals larger and better nourished than land animals? Is it because the sun consumes the 15 outer surface of the earth and takes the nourishment out 1 Omitting mpd. T.G., who has ductugue humoris tenuis acrisgue, does not render it, and its insertion destroys the sense of the passage, since the light humours are expelled in sneezing while the solider humours remain. 2 i.e. the breath and the light humours. 3 Reading mayos éyovra (cp. 871226 and G. A. 739% 12) for mados éxovra, The Latin version renders crassz. ' 4 Reading 7d pndév exros Ov adtav. 70 pr’ exros f de’ abry neither is Greek nor does it make sense. The required meaning, however, 1s clear, d@iecOa should probably be read for apetoOu, 897° PROBLEMATA of it? (For this reason too those animals which are enclosed in the earth are better nourished.) Marine animals then are free from all these disadvantages. Why is it that the other animals provide themselves 56 20 more often with dry than with moist food, but man takes more moist than dry nourishment?! Is it because man is naturally very hot and therefore requires most cooling? Why is it that eunuchs do not become bald?? Is it 57 because they have a large amount of brain-matter? Now this is the result of their not having sexual intercourse 25 with women ;* for the semen passes from the brain through the spine. For this reason too bulls which have been castrated appear to have large horns after castration. For the same reason also, apparently, women and children are not bald. 30 Why is it that some animals are able to feed themselves 58 directly after birth, while others cannot? Are those who can do so the shorter-lived among those animals which are capable of memory? It is for this reason that they always die sooner. Why does man produce more moist than dry excrement, 59 35 but horses and asses more dry than moist? Is it because the latter animals take more dry food, whereas man takes more moist than dry nourishment?* For all excrement comes from food, and a greater amount of food produces a greater quantity of excrement.® Some animals then take more moist food, others more dry food, because some are 898° naturally dry and others moist. Animals then which are naturally dry feel more desire for moist food, since they require it more; but those which are naturally moist desire dry food, for they stand more in need of it. Why is it that birds and men and the courageous animals 60 5 have hard frames? Is it because high spirit is accompanied ’ Cp. below, ll. 35, 36. * Cp. 1. A. 632” 4, G. A. 784° 6, and Hippocr. Aph. 6. ” G. A. 783» 27. * Cp. above, Il. 19-22. * Reading mAeiwy (Richards) for meio. BOOK X. 60 898" by bodily heat, since fear is a process of cooling? Those then whose blood is hot are also courageous and high- spirited; for the blood gives them sustenance. Plants too which are watered with warm water become harder. 61 Why is it that quadrupeds of a small size most often give birth to monstrosities, whereas man and the larger quadrupeds, such as horses and asses, do so less often ??} Is it because the small quadrupeds, such as dogs, pigs, goats, and sheep, have much more abundant progeny than the larger animals, which either always or usually produce only one offspring at a time? Monstrosities come into being when the semen becomes confused? and disturbed either in the emission of the seminal fluid or in the mingling which takes place in the uterus of the female. So birds too produce monstrosities; for they lay twin* eggs, and their monstrosities are born from such eggs in which the yolk is not separated by the membrane.’ ) we 52. Why is the head in man more hairy than the rest of the 20 body °—in fact quite disproportionately so—while in the other animals the opposite is the case? Is it because some of the other animals send an excessive amount of their nutritive material into teeth, others into horns, others into hair? Those who expend their nourishment on horns have less thick hair on the head; for the available material is used up in the horns. Those whose nourishment goes 25 into teeth have thicker hair on the head than horned animals (for they have crests or manes),° but less thick than such creatures as‘ birds. For birds have the same sort of covering as man;* but,’ whereas in birds the WiGpiG 4770.0 th, 2 For éraddarre cp. G. A. 769” 34, 36. 3 j,e. double-yolked. 1 Cp. H. A. 562% 24 ff., G. A. 770” 16, and A. Platt’s notes. a Co, HA. 496” 17 ff, P. A. 658" 1. * Nodua inciudes both crest and mane. ’ Reading, with Richards, viwy opryéwr. 8 The sense here is clear and is that of T.G.’s version (Azs enim tllud etiam, quod homini, genus integendi natura tribuit\, but the reading is doubtful. tiv 7éy dvépwrwr seems to require a noun, and Richards suggests ékSoaw; but (1) is €xoure ry Tov uvOporwy exSoow good Greek tor ‘have the same distribution of hair as men’, and (2) is not this coniradicted by what follows? yovoe yap rijy abriy xaitny to dvO@porw is perhaps preferable, ° Reading 6 (6’) ekeivars (so also Richards). 898° PROBLEMATA covering is distributed all over the body owing to its abundance, in man! it breaks out only on the head; for man is neither? on the one hand devoid of hair, nor on 30 the other hand has he sufficient to cover the whole body. Why is it that in man alone of the animals the hair 63 turns white?? Is it because most of the animals shed their coats every year, for instance the horse and the ox, while others, though they do not do so, are short-lived, such as sheep and others (in which case the hair does not 35 turn white, because it does not as it were grow old)? But man does not change his hair and is long-lived, and so he grows white owing to age. Why is it that those in whom the distance from the 64 navel downwards is longer than that from the navel to 898° the chest are short-lived and weak? Is it because their stomach is cold owing to its small size, and therefore it tends to cause excretion rather than concoction? Now such persons are unhealthy. Why is it that some animals come into being not only 65 from the sexual intercourse of animals with one another 5 but also spontaneously, while others, such as man and the horse, can only be born as the result of sexual inter- course?* Is it due, if to no other cause, at any rate to the fact that the former have a short period of coming to birth, so that the moment of birth is not protracted and can take place at the change of the seasons;° but of the latter class the coming to birth is much protracted, ro Since they are born after a year or ten months, so that they must necessarily be born from the intercourse of animals with each other or not at all 2° Reading rovrw (Richards) ; Y® has rovra. Reading ovre . . . ore (Richards). Cp. 8915 1, G. A. 7789 25, 780” 4, 7829 11. * Cp. chapter 13. ” Which sets up the process of decay necessary for spontaneous generation, cp. 892° 35, 36 and G. A. 71525. ° The text as it stands makes no sense. Since, however, the Latin version of T.G. renders guapropter vel nullo pacto vel ex coitu procreentur tlla necesse est, we should certainly read with Bussemaker Ch) BN) ylver Oat 7 Tr, 1 2 3 4 BOOK X. 66 898° 6 Why is it that the teeth of Ethiopians are white— indeed whiter than those of other nations, but their nails are not correspondingly white? Are their nails dark because their skin also is black and blacker than that of others, and the nails grow out of the skin? But why are their teeth white? Is it because those things turn white out of which the sun extracts the moisture without adding any colour to them, as happens in the case of wax ? Now the sun colours! the skin, but it does not colour the teeth, but the moisture is evaporated out of them by the heat. uu 37 + Why is it that, when the head is removed, some animals 2° die immediately or very soon, while others do not? Does death occur less quickly in the bloodless animals, which require little nourishment, since they do not need food immediately and the heat in them is not diffused in moisture, whereas full-blooded animals cannot live with- out food and heat? ‘The former can live after their heads are cut off, for they can live longer without breathing. The reason for this has been stated elsewhere.? 25 Ten tanss ? This appears te-he a direct reference to de Respir. 475° 20 ff. 898° BOOK XI PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH THE VOICE Wuy is it that of all the senses the hearing is most liable 1 to be defective from birth? Is it because the sense of hearing and the voice may be held to arise from the same 30 source?! Now language, which is a kind of voice,” seems to be very easily destroyed and to be very difficult to perfect; this is indicated by the fact that we are dumb for a long time after our birth, for at first we simply do not talk at all and then at length begin only to lisp. And 35 because language is easily destroyed, and language (being a kind of voice) and hearing both have the same source, hearing is, as it were, Der accidens, though not fer se, the most easily destroyed of the senses.? Further evidence 8997 of the fact that the source of language is eminently easy to destroy may be taken from the other animals; for no animal other than man talks, and even he begins to do so late, as has already been remarked. 3) Why is it that the deaf always speak through their 2 nostrils?* Is it because they are near to being dumb?° Now the dumb make sounds through their nostrils; for the breath escapes by that way because their mouth is closed, and it is closed because they make no use of their tongue for vocal purposes. om io Why have all hot-natured men big voices? Is it because 3 they necessarily have a large amount of cold air ® in them? 1 Cp. de Anim. 426% 27. 2 Cp. above, 895 5. * Reading ek for ei before cuuB_eB8nxdros and punctuating as follows: dia re 7d ry Siddexrov etOaprov elvar, rv airy dé apxiy aporépay civat, kai THs Stadrexrou (pov) yap tis) Kat THs axons, Somep Kar ek TvpBeBnxdros pacra rdv aio icewv POeiperar Kat ov Kad adthy akon. * Cp. chapter 4 and xxxiil. 14. “Cp. A.A. $36) 3% * T.G, evidently translates from a text which read Oepp)v for Wuxpov, for he renders perfervidum. If vxpov is retained the meaning is that the heat inside the body attracts a quantity of cold air from without; there is therefore more air to expel and consequently the voice is big BOOK Xs 899° For their breath, which is hot, attracts the air to itself, and the more of it there is the more it attracts. Now a big voice arises from setting in motion a large quantity of air, and when the motion is swift, the voice is shrill, and when it is slow, it is deep. 4 Why do the deaf always speak through their nostrils?! 15 Is it because the deaf breathe more violently? For they are near to being dumb; the passage therefore of the nostrils is distended by the breath, and those who are in this condition speak through the nostrils. 5 Why are sounds more audible at night?? Is it because there is more quiet then owing to the absence of great 20 heat? For this reason too there is usually less disturbance ; for it is the sun which is the source of movement. 6 Why do voices sound shriller at a distance?* For example, those who try to imitate persons shouting from a very great distance utter shrill noises, like those of an echo; and the sound of an echo is distinctly shriller,* and it is a distant sound, being the result of refraction. Since 25 then in sound the swift is shrill and the slow is deep, one would have expected voices to seem deeper from a distance, for all moving bodies move more slowly the farther they progress from their starting-point, and at last fall. May not the explanation be that these mimics use a feeble and thin voice® when they imitate a distant 30 sound? Now a thin voice is not deep, and it is impossible to emit a small and feeble sound that is deep, but such a sound is necessarily shrill. Or is it true that not only do the mimics imitate for this reason, but also the sounds themselves become shriller? The reason is that the air which travels makes the sound; and just as that which first sets the air in motion causes the sound, so the air 35 in volume. The reading Wuxpor is borne out by Hippocr. Efrd. vi. 4. 19 év ols mAEioTOV TO Oepudy, peyehopwvéraror’ Kat yap Yuxpos anp TAEiaToS. 1 A repetition of chapter 2 in a slightly different form; cp. also XXX. 14. 2 For a more elaborate treatment of this problem see chapter 33. 3 Cp. chapters 20 and 47, and xix. II. 4 j, e. shriller than the sound which it echoes. 5 Reading pipovvra: kal erry. 645-25 K 8992 PROBLEMATA in its turn must do likewise and be partly a motive power and partly itself set in motion.! That is why sound is continuous, motive power continually succeeding to 899° motive power, until the force is spent, which results in falling in the case of bodies, when the air can no longer impel the missile, while in the case of sound the air can no longer impel other air. Continuous sound is produced when air is impelled by air, while the missile continues its progress as long as there is air to keep a body in s motion. In the latter it is always the same body that is carried along until it drops, in the former it is always different air. Smaller objects travel more quickly at first, but do not gofar. Therefore voices are shriller and thinner at a distance; for that which moves more quickly is shrill —a question which we have already raised.? It is for the 10 same reason that children and invalids have shrill voices, whereas grown men and healthy persons have deep voices." That* from near at hand one cannot clearly distinguish degrees of deepness and shrillness and that altogether the conditions are not the same as those of heavy bodies thrown, is due to the fact that the body thrown is one and preserves its identity throughout; whereas sound is 15 air impelled by air. Consequently a body falls in one particular spot, while the voice scatters in every direction, just as though a body thrown were, in the course of its flight, to be broken into infinitesimally small pieces, some particles even returning on their track. Why are newly plastered houses more resonant? Is it 7 because their smoothness gives greater facility for refrac- tion? They are smoother because they are free from cracks 20 and their surface is continuous. One must, however, take a house which is already dry and not one which is still quite wet; for damp clay gives no refraction of sound. It is for this reason that stucco’ has a higher degree of ' Cp. de Aud. 800* I-11. ? i.e. in 8997 13 and 26. “ Cp. chapter 16. * Reading rod dé (Richards). ” Apparently a smoother and more expensive material than ordinary plaster : it was used for coating the inside of reservoirs, cp. de Col. 794° 31, 32. resonance. Perhaps the absence of disturbance in the air also contributes somethirg; for when the air is! massed together it beats back tie air that strikes against it. 8 Why is it that if a large jar or empty earthenware vessels are buried in the ground? and lids placed on them, the buildings in which they are have more resonance, and the same is true if there is a well or cistern in the house? Is it because, since an echo is due to refraction, the air when enclosed is necessarily massed together, and so the sound has something dense and smooth upon which it can strike* and from which it can be refracted, these being the most favourable conditions for an echo? A well, 30 then, or a cistern causes the contraction and massing together of air, and jars and earthenware vessels also have dense surrounding walls, and so the phenomenon in ques- tion results in both cases. For anything which is hollow is particularly resonant; for which reason bronze vessels are particularly so. That resonance still continues when the vessels are buried need not surprise us; for the voice is carried downwards as much as in any other direction— indeed one conceives of it as being carried in a circle in 35 is) a) every direction. 9 But why is it that there is more resonance where vessels are buried than where they are not? Is it because covered goo* vessels receive the air and retain it better? The result is that the impact of sound upon them is more violent. O Why does cold water poured out of a jug make a shriller sound than hot water poured from the same vessel? Is it because the cold water falls at a greater speed, being heavier, 5 and the greater speed causes the sound to be shriller? ‘ Tt is quite clear from a comparison with the next problem (Il. 27- 34 below) that dv must be read for tov, ‘he meaning is that a mass of undisturbed air collected in an enclosed space (in this case in a room, in the next problem in an earthenware vessel, well, or cistern) is a good medium for the refraction of sound, and therefore gives an echo. For another instance of the confusion of dv and ‘wy see 904) 16 and note. * The custom of burying storage vessels in the floors of houses is amply borne out by excavations on ancient sites from the earliest periods onwards. : ; 3 Omitting the comma after dvaxhaoOjoera, and reading mpoorinrar. Kez goo* PROBLEMATA Heat, on the other hand, makes water lighter by rarefying itand causing it to rise.|_ We may compare the phenomenon that torches deal softer blows when they are alight. 10 Why is it that the voice is rougher when one has passed 11 a sleepless night? Is it because the body, owing to absence of concoction, is moister than usual, especially in its upper part (which is also the cause of heaviness in the head), and moisture in the region of the windpipe necessarily makes the voice rougher? For roughness is due to unevenness, whilst depth is due to congestion ; for the passage of sound is then slower. or Why does the voice become broken very readily after 12 meals ?? Is it because the region in which it is produced is thoroughly heated by constant impacts, and, becoming heated, attracts the moisture? The moisture too is itself more copious and readier to hand when food is being taken. 20 Why is the sound of weeping shrill, whereas that of 13 laughing is deep ?° Is it because those who weep * either set only a little breath in motion, because they are weak, or else exhale violently, which makes their breath travel quickly ? Now speed makes for shrillness; for that which is hurled from a body which is tense travels quickly. (On the other hand, a man who is laughing is in a relaxed condition.°) Those who are weak make shrill sounds, for they set only a little air in motion, in some cases merely on the surface.°® Further, the air emitted by those who are laughing is warm, while the breath of those who are weeping is colder, just as is) or ‘ i.e. by evaporation. > Cp. chapter 22. On ‘broken’ voices cp. de Aud. 804” 11 ff. * Cp. chapters 15 and 50. * of pev dAlyov Kwodor mvetpa dv’ doOévey must refer to the weepers, not to the laughers, for (1) those who weep are weaker (cp. 904 25, 26), and (2) laughers emit large quantities of air (cp. ll. 25-9 below). oi de aodpas, d moet raxd péperda 7d mvedpa must also refer to weep- ing, for breath which is quickly and violently expelled makes a shrill sound. The whole sentence therefore refers to two different cases of oi khalovres. Any other way of taking the passage involves hopeless confusion in this problem and contradicts chapters 15 and 50. Greater clearness would be obtained by reading #} drt (oi kNalovres) of péev KT. Richards (of. cil., p. 18) suggests opodpas dé for of d¢ apodpas. Reading diadeupévos for diadeduperas. * Richards (¢oc. czt.) suggests that of & dodeveis . .. €nurodjs is a gloss. BOOK XI. 13 goo* pain is a chilling of the region round the breast. Now heat sets a great mass of air in motion, so that its progress is slow,' whereas cold imparts movement to a little air only. 30 The same thing happens with flutes; when the player's breath is hot,’ the sound produced is much deeper. 14 Why do children ® and the young of other animals have shriller voices than the full-grown of their species, and that though shrillness involves a quality of violence? Is it because ‘ the voice is a movement of the air, and the swifter the movement the shriller is the sound? Now a little air 35 can be moved more easily and quickly than a large quantity, and it is set in motion owing either to its concretion or to its dissolution by heat. Now since we draw in cold air when we inhale, the air within us can become concreted by the act of inhalation; but exhalation, when heat sets air in motion, can become voice, for it is when we are exhaling that we speak, not when we are inhaling. And since the young are hotter goo” than their elders, and their interior passages are narrower, they may well have less air in them. So, as there is less in them of that which is moved’ and more motive power, namely heat, for both reasons the movement of the air may 5 be quicker ; and, for the reasons already stated,° the quicker the movement the shriller the voice. 15 Why is the sound of weeping shrill and of laughter deep?7 Is it because those who weep, in uttering their cries, Strain and contract the mouth? Owing to the tension the air that is in them is impelled into swift motion, and the contraction of the mouth, through which it passes, makes its speed still greater. For both these reasons the voice becomes shrill. On the other hand, those who laugh relax the tension in doing so and open the mouth. Since then for this reason they emit the air from the mouth through a wide aperture and slowly, their voice is naturally deep. O° ' And therefore deep. 2 Reading @eppw (Platt) ; all MSS. have deppoi. 5 Cp. chapters 16, 34, 62. Peeie 4 Reading 4 (drt) 7 porn, suggested by Ruelle. shibeewinrk. SE i © 8q9% 13, »8, &e. 7 Cf, chapters 13 and 50, 15 is) oy 30 re) gol PROBLEMATA Why is it that persons without generative power, such 16 as boys, women, men grown old, and eunuchs, have shrill voices, while adult men have deep voices?! Is it because” the thin voice has only one dimension, just as the line and other thin things have one dimension, while thick things have more than one? Now it is easier to create and set in motion one thing than several things. Now the breathing of the persons mentioned above is feeble and sets little air in motion; and the air which has only one dimension is very small in quantity, for it will be thin for the reasons already stated. And the voice produced from it will be of the same quality, and a thin voice is shrill. This then is the reason why persons without generative power have shrill voices ; whereas men who are vigorous set a large quantity of air in motion with their breath, and the air, being large in quantity, is likely to move slowly and causes the voice to be deep. For shrillness of voice is, as we have seen, produced by a movement at once swift and thin, neither of which conditions is fulfilled in an adult man. Why are our voices deeper in the winter ?* Is it because then the air both inside and outside us is thicker, and, being such, its movement is slower and the voice therefore deeper ? Further, we are drowsier in the winter than in the summer and sleep longer, and we are heavier after sleeping. In the period then during which we sleep for a longer time than we are awake (namely, the winter), we may expect to have deeper voices than in the season when the contrary happens. For during the short interval of wakefulness the condition set up during sleep persists and causes a tendency to drowsiness. Why is the voice deeper as a result of drinking and vomiting and cold weather? Is it due to the congestion of the larynx * caused by phlegm, which makes fluid matter collect in it? In some people vomiting and drinking, in others the season and the constriction resulting therefrom, ' Cf. chapters 14, 34, and 62, and de Aud. 803> 18 ff. * Reading Ray, Kadame)). ’ Cp. chapter 61. * Greek ei puyé, cp. 2. A. 664° 16 and Ogle’s note. 17 18 BOOK XI. 18 make the larynx narrower, so that the passage of breath is slower ; and its slow passage makes the voice deep. 1g Why is it that a deeper voice is more audible close at hand, but less so at a distance? _Is it because a deeper voice sets a greater amount of air in motion, but not at a distance ? So we hear it less well at a distance, because it travels less far, but better from near at hand, because a greater mass of air strikes upon our sensory organ. A shrill sound is audible at a distance, because it is thinner; and that which is thin has greater longitudinal extension. It might also be said that the motion which causes it is quicker; this would be so, if the breath which sets the air in motion were at the same time dense and narrow. For, in the first place, air which is small in bulk moves more readily (for the air which is set in motion by that which is narrow is small in bulk); and, secondly, that which is dense deals more impacts, and it is these which cause the sound. This can be illustrated from musical instruments; for, all other conditions being the same, it is the thinner strings that give shriller sounds.! 20. Why does the voice seem shriller to those standing at a distance, whereas shrillness depends on the rapidity at which the voice travels, and that which travels moves more slowly the farther it goes?? Is it because the shrillness of the voice depends not only on the rapidity with which it travels but also on the attenuation of sound?’ ‘The farther one is away the more attenuated is the voice when it reaches one, because very little air isset in motion. For the motion gradually diminishes; and just as number in diminishing terminates in the unit, so a body terminates in a single dimension, and this in a body is tenuity. So it is also with the voice. ar Why is it that both those who have taken violent exercise and those who are ill speak shrilly?* Is it because those who are ill set only a little air in motion, and a little air 1 Cp. de Aud. 803) 23 ff. 2 Cp. chapters 6 and 47. 3 Reading Aerrov roy (Richards) for Newrcraroy. * Cp. chapter 4o. gol" 5 + TS bh {e) LSS} go1* 35 gol” on Io 15 20 PROBLEMATA travels more quickly than a larger quantity? Those who have taken violent exercise, on the other hand, set the air in vigorous motion, and air which is in vigorous motion travels more quickly, and in the voice quickness of motion causes shrillness. Why do those who shout after meals spoil their voices ?? Indeed, we can see how those who are training their voices, such as actors and chorus-men and all such persons, practice early in the morning and on an empty stomach. Is it because the spoiling of the voice is simply the spoiling of the region through which the voice passes out? So too those who have sore throats have their voices spoilt, not because the breath which causes the voice is any worse, but because the windpipe is roughened. This region by its nature is especially liable to be roughened by violent heat ; ? and so neither can those who are in a fever sing, nor can those who have been suffering from a violent fever sing immediately after it leaves them; for their larynx is roughened by the heat. The consumption of food naturally increases and heats the breath, and it is reasonable to suppose that the breath being in this state makes the wind- pipe sore and rough as it passes through; and when this happens the voice is naturally spoilt. Why is it that the voice, which is air that has taken a certain form and is carried along, often loses its form by dissolution, but an echo, which is caused by such air striking on something hard, does not become dissolved, but we hear it distinctly ?* Is it because in an echo refraction takes place and not dispersion? This being so, the whole continues to exist and there are two parts of it of similar form ;* for refraction takes place at the same angle. So the voice of the echo is similar to the original voice. * This problem clearly continues the topic raised in chapter 12. * In goo* 12-14 moisture is said to be the cause of roughness, not heat as here. * This problem is repeated, in part verbally, in chapter 51. * The two ‘parts’ into which 7d 6dov is divided are (1) the voice on its way to the hard object from which it is refracted, and (2) the voice after refraction, i.e. the echo, 22 23 BOOK XI. 24 gor? 24 Why is it that, although the young of all other animals and infants have shriller voices than the full-grown of their 2; species,' calves have deeper voices than full-grown oxen ?” Is it because in each species the young resembles the female of the same kind? Now among cattle cows have deeper voices* than bulls, and the calves resemble the former rather than the latter; but in all other species the males have deeper voices. 25, Why is it that when the orchestra of a theatre is spread 30 with straw, the chorus makes less sound? Is it because, owing to the unevenness of the surface, the voice does not find the ground smooth when it strikes upon it and is therefore less uniform, and so is less in bulk, because it is not continuous? Similarly light too shines more on smooth surfaces, because it is not cut off by anything which inter- 35 cepts it. 26 Why does salt make a noise when it is thrown on fire? 4 go2? Is it because salt has a little moisture in it which is evaporated by the heat and violently bursting forth rends the salt? Now anything which is rent makes a noise. on 27. Why is it that some children, before they reach the age at which it is time for them to express themselves clearly, find voice and say something distinctly, and then go on as before ® until the usual age for speaking arrives? Some regard such incidents as portents; and before now cases have been reported of children who spoke immediately after birth. Is it because generally the majority of children at birth ® follow the usual course of nature (and so the pheno- menon in question occurs only in a few), and their faculties keep pace with one another; and so they hear |and find voice]? and understand what they hear and speak and express themselves clearly all at the same time ? Sometimes, m (e) 1 As has already been stated in goo® 32 ff. GEC Dn Geren 7 OOP M bye peAaGA 5 LO, DC, Ga PROD. Jak eee Caplan * Cp. chapters 42 and 43. ° i,e. do not speak again. ° Retaining the MS. reading yvopevor. 7 ai @ovet is hardly necessary here, its meaning being more appro- priately expressed by xai Aéye: following. 902* PROBLEMATA however, these things! do not go together, but some 15 children understand before the faculty by which they 20 30 Ww on converse is set free for use, while in others the opposite happens. The latter, then, would not converse intelligently (for they merely repeat what they hear) ; but when the time comes at which they can both speak and understand, they make a natural use of both functions. But in those in whose souls perception through hearing has been perfected before the organ? by which the voice is first set in motion and speech is formed, the full power and freeing of the organ of speech sometimes comes to pass when they already understanda great deal. This is especially likely to happen after sleep—the reason being that sleep makes the body and the faculties more sluggish by giving them a rest—or, if not after sleep, after some other similar change has taken place. We can do many things of this sort which require some short-lived opportunity—after which the conditions are no longer suitable—when the organ of speech is in this state of freedom; and? when there has been obviously present to their sensation something by which thought was stirred, in virtue of having heard it the child returns to it and utters it. Now tunes and phrases often occur to us without our deliberate intention, but if we originally utter them deliberately, we afterwards speak or sing them without deliberate intention and cannot get rid of them from our lips. So too when this happens in children, they speak,‘ and then the faculty involved relapses again into its natural condition, until the time comes tor it to become strong and to be separately constituted. Why do some objects, chests for example, suddenly make a noise and move, when nothing perceptible sets them in motion? Yet that which causes motion is stronger than that whichis moved. The same question arises in connexion * Reading ratra (Richards). ~ Reading with Bussemaker (7) 6. Reading with Richards érav (8)... ¢ Reading otto Kal rots malo orav oupB7 totro, elroy, era madw katesty KTA, (cp. above, ll. 7,8); this is supported by the Latin version of T.G.. tla fiert potest ut pueri aliquid dicant, rursusgue membrum .. redeat ad suam naturam. & E4 4 28 BOOK XI. 28 902* with corruption and old age; for everything which is said to be ‘destroyed by time’ is destroyed by something imperceptible, Is it similar to dripping water and stones 902° lifted by the growth of plants, namely, that it is not the final effort but its continuity which raises or moves the object? This continuity of effort is imperceptible, but it results in a movement which is perceptible. So too that which is contained within perceptible spaces of time s moves and can be divided into imperceptible portions, but these cause motion and corruption by their sum and their continuity.' Now continuity is not in the present time ‘but in the period of time terminated by the present. 29 Why does one hear less well when one is yawning ?? Is it because a quantity of breath emitted in the yawn finds its way also into the ears, so that the motion which it sets up in the neighbourhood of the ears makes a distinct impression on the perception, especially after sleep? Now sound is air or a certain condition of it. The sound then from out- side enters the ear, and that from within comes into collision with it, and the movement thus caused checks the progress of the sound from without. ° or 3° Why do children hesitate more in their speech than grown men? Is it because, just as, when we are children, we always haye less control over our hands and feet and at a still earlier age cannot walk at all, so the young cannot control their tongue? Now when they are quite small, they 20 cannot speak at all but can only make sounds like the animals, because they lack control. This is the cause not only of hesitancy in speech but also of lisping and stammer- ing. Lisping is due to the inability to master a letter—not any letter but some particular one; stammering is due to 1 i.e. it takes a considerable period for the growth of a tree to move a stone, and if it is examined at any particular moment the movement is imperceptible; but there is a perceptible difference between the position of the stone at the beginning and at the end of the period, and this is the effect of the sum of the continuous but imperceptible movement. * Cp. chapter 44 and G. A. 781% 30, go2? 25 903° or PROBLEMATA the dropping out of some particular letter or syllable ;* hesitancy is due to the inability to join one syllable to another sufficiently quickly. All three are due to want of power; for the tongue is not an efficient servant of the intelligence. The same thing occurs in those who are drunken and in the old; but always to a less extent than in children. Why is it that the voice trembles in those who are nervous ” 31 or afraid ?? Is it because the heart is shaken by the passing out of the heat? For this happens in both conditions, being an effect both of nervousness and of fear.* When the heart is shaken, the impact ° is not one but many, like that 5 from strings which are not properly stretched.° Why is it that those who are nervous have deep voices, 32 but those who are afraid speak shrilly ?7 Is it because in those who are afraid the region about the heart is chilled,* because the heat passes downwards, and so they set only a little air in motion? For the force which sets the air in motion is derived from heat. In those who are nervous the heat travels upwards,’ as happens in those who are ashamed ; for it is through shame !° that nervousness is felt. In those who are ashamed the heat travels upwards to the face, as is shown by the fact that they tend to blush... The heat therefore dissolves and thickens the air with which they speak, and such air can only be propelled slowly; and in the voice that which is slow is deep. 1 Cp. de Aud. 804» 26-33. ® For a definition of dywria see 8696; see also note on 7d. *2 for the difference between aywvia and ios. * (Gp. XXvil. 15 6, and 7 * kat yap... PoBovérois has perhaps come into the text as a gloss upon cuporepdkis dé macxovor toito. The doctrine here agrees with that of il. 31 as far as the effect of fear is concerned (6 8€ @dBos Kard- Wuéis tev dive, 869" 7), but the effect of nervousness is there said to be TO 70 Oeppov airy nOpotaGat eis Tov rept To at HO0s Témov (2d. 13). 5 i.e. of the voice upon the air. ° Cp. de Aud. 804% 38 ff. ” Cp. chapter 53. * Cp. 869° 7 (quoted in note on 1. 32 above). * In 8697 4 dywvia is called advénows Oeppor. 20'Cp: 9052 8 " Contrast 869° 8, where those who are nervous are said to turn pale. BOOK XI. 33 903" 33 Why are sounds more audible in the night than in the day?? Is it for the reason that Anaxagoras? gives, namely, that in the day-time the air, heated by the sun, hisses and roars, but at night it is still because the heat has ceased, 10 and that when there is no noise hearing is easier? Or is it because one hears more easily through a comparative void than through a Alen? Now in the day the air is dense, being full of light and of the sun’s rays; but at night it is rarer, for then the fire and the rays, which are bodies, have gone 15 out of it. Or is it because in the day-time the various bodies around us ® distract our intelligence, and so it is less able to distinguish * what it hears? Also because we do all that we have to do preferably in the day rather than at night, our intelligence ° too is busy then; and the perception apart from intelligence does, if one may say so,® only an im- perceptible amount of work—as the saying is, ‘ It is the mind 20 which sees, the mind which hears’? But at night when our sight has no work to do and our intelligence is more at liberty, the channel of hearing, being wider open, is just as receptive of sounds * and better able to report them to the intelligence, because the latter is neither busy nor distracted 25 by the sight, as it is in the day-time. 34 Why is it that persons without generative power, such as boys, women, men grown old, and eunuchs, have shrill voices, while adult men have deeper voices ?® Is it because of the weakness of the organ which sets the air in motion ? For that which is weak sets only a little in motion; and 30 a little air travels quickly, and that which travels quickly is shrill. Or is it because the first passage through which the air passes is narrow in those who are without generative power, so that that which expels the air from it has little force, 1 A more elaborate statement of the problem already briefly treated in cae . One i USOKL., P- 392. i. Se ble aiecte e * Reading e’xpurjs (Richards). Reading air) (sc. 7 didvow) for avra ; so also Richards. 5 xaOarep is inserted to apologize for the play upon the words aigOyars and avalu @nrov. 7 Epicharmus, fr. 2. ® Omitting Kaddmep ris juépas (Platt) as having come from I. 26. ° Cp. chapters 14, 16, and 62. ran wn 903° PROBLEMATA and the air, being small in volume, travels quickly through the larynx above, which is wide? But in the adult and 35 fully developed men this passage is wide (just as also is that! leading to the testicles), and so the quantity of the air expelled is also greater; and so passing through more slowly it makes a deeper sound. Why is it that those who hesitate in their speech cannot 35 speak in a low voice? Is it because they are hindered from using their voice by some impediment? Since, then, there is? not equal force exerted and similar movement set up when there is some impediment to the movement and when there is none, a violent effort is required. Now the voice is a movement, and those who use more force speak louder ; and so, since they have to force the hindrance out of the way, those who hesitate in their speech must necessarily speak louder. 993 on Why do those who hesitate in their speech become worse 36 when they are nervous, but better under the influence of drunkenness? Is it because their condition is a state resembling apoplexy ® of some interior part of the body ro Which they cannot move and which by its coldness hinders their speech?* Wine then, being naturally hot, tends to get rid of the coldness, but nervousness creates coldness ; for it is a form of fear, and fear is a chilling condition.® Why is it easier to hear sounds from outside in a house 37 than those from inside a house outside it? Is it because the sound from inside becomes dispersed because it travels 15 OVer an immense space, so that each component part of the sound is not sufficiently strong to make itself heard, or at any rate is less audible? On the other hand, a voice from without entering within into a smaller space and into stagnant air arrives in a close mass, and so being greater in bulk is more audible. ' Reading @ozep kai (6) emi (Platt). * Reading «uvnrews (ovans) (Richards). * Reading amom\n€ia (Bekker). * Apoplexy is accompanied by loss of heat, cp. S60* 34 ° See note on 869 2. BOOK XI. 38 903° 38 Why are those who hesitate in their speech melancholic ? Is it because melancholy is due to their responding too 20 quickly to the imagination? Now this is characteristic of those who hesitate in their speech; for the impulse to speak outstrips their power to do so, the mind responding too quickly to that which is presented to it. The same thing occurs in those who lisp;! for in them the organs employed in speech are too slow.” This is shown by the fact that men under the influence of wine become lispers, since then they respond most to the objects presented to their vision and not so much to the mind. is) ut 39 Why do leeks contribute to loudness of the voice (for we find that this is so even with partridges)? Is it because, whereas boiled garlic makes the throat smooth, leeks contain a certain amount of adhesive matter, ef this cleanses the larynx? 40 Why is it that in all other creatures the sounds made 30 are shriller when more violence is used, but man speaks more shrilly when he is weak?’ Is it because then he sets less air in motion, and this passes along quickly, and its speed makes the sound shrill ? 41 Why can one hear better when one holds one’s breath than when one exhales?* This is why people when 35 hunting tell one another not to breathe. Is it because the power of perception rises into the upper parts of the body when the veins are distended? For it sinks when one is asleep; and so those who are sleeping exhale rather than inhale, and lose the sense of hearing. Or does the blood rise upwards when one exhales, so that the lower go4* parts of the body become void, and one can hear better in a void? Or is it because breathing is a noise, and when it takes place in the act of exhaling it impedes the hearing ? ! Cp. Hippocr. Zfdd. ii, 5. 1 voonjpara de exovor tpavdds... i} ioxvodevos .. » pehayxorexi. * Reading Bnadirepa, Chey chapter 21. ' Cp, chapter 48. goa? PROBLEMATA Why do small quantities of salt make a noise and ex- 42 ; plode more quickly, but large quantities more violently ?? Is it because in the former case the particles burst quickly because they are small (for the fire does not have far to penetrate), but in the latter case slowly, since a large mass is more difficult to burst than a small? A small quantity makes a small noise because the impact is small, whereas 10a large quantity makes a loud noise because the impact is greater; and sound is an impact. The stronger an object is, the greater is the explosion if it is struck ;* for it is less yielding. Why is it that if the same quantity of salt is thrown 43 on to a large fire, it makes less noise than if thrown on a small fire, or else makes no noise at all? Is it because it is burnt up before it can burst? For it burns because 15the moisture is used up,® and it makes a noise because it bursts. Why does one hear less well when one is yawning ?* 44 Is it because the action of yawning cuts off the breath internally and the breath so cut off accumulates in the region of the ears? This is shown by the fact that there is a noise in the ears when one yawns. Now the breath 20 thus cut off hinders the hearing. Further one also makes a noise when one yawns, and this tends to impede the hearing. Also the organs of hearing must necessarily become compressed by the distension of the mouth in yawning. Why is it that though the voice, since it is a kind of 45 stream, is naturally inclined to travel upwards, yet it is more audible below from above than above from below ? 251s it because the voice is a kind of air mingled with moisture, and this air being weighed down by the moisture is carried downwards instead of upwards, since it is the natural characteristic of moisture to be carried downwards ? For this reason one hears better when one is below. Or : Sc. when thrown upon the fire, as in chapters 26 and 43. ; Ee aA: ar Sup .002%0Mno. Is 1s the same problem as that differently treated. : SE ae BOOK XI. 45 94" is such a result characteristic only of the voice of a living creature (for it contains moisture), while the phenomenon which we are discussing is found also in other sounds? Just as the sight then, if it be allowed to fall from a higher 30 to a lower object, makes an upward reflexion and vice versa,' so the voice, which has a natural tendency to rise, coming into collision with the air which bars its progress, cannot Overpower the air, which is greater in mass and heavier, but the air which is set in motion by the voice, 35 being refracted, is carried in a contrary direction and down- wards, and so, being scattered in a downward direction, it is more audible below. Somewhat similar is that which happens in an echo, which is due to the refraction of the voice in a contrary direction. 46 Why are the voices of drunken persons more broken goq4” than those of the sober? Is it because their voice breaks easily owing to their state of repletion? This can be illustrated by the fact that chorus-men and actors practise not after a meal but on an empty stomach.? Now since a person in a state of drunkenness is in a condition of 5 greater repletion, his voice is naturally more broken. 47 Why can one hear shriller voices at a greater distance ? Is it because shrillness in the voice is rapidity, and what is carried forcibly along moves more rapidly, and what is carried violently along is carried farther ?* 10 48 Why can we hear better if we hold the breath?4 Is it because breathing makes a noise? It is only natural there- fore that we should hear better when the noise is less; for the noise is less when we hold the breath. 1 The reference here seems to be to the fact that if one gazes at an object and then lowers or raises the eyes, a momentary image is retained of the object first looked at. It is difficult to see the exact force of this comparison between the voice and the sight; there is perhaps some confusion due to the use of the word dvakAagrs in two senses, VIZ. pehaeion of sound and reflection of light. PGs Cron Asa fe : This Oe nied form of the answer given to the same problem in chapter 6; cp. also chapter 20. . 4 This problem has been more fully treated in chapter 4r. 645.25 L 904 I 20 2 wo 5 § cn PROBLEMATA Why is it that light cannot penctrate through dense 49 objects, whereas sound can do so, although light is rarer and travels! farther and quicker than sound?? Is it because light travels in a straight line, and so, if anything blocks its direct course, it is completely cut off, but sound, because it is a breath, can also travel in a line that is not direct? So we can hear those who make sounds from any direction and not only those who are in a straight line with our ears. Why is the sound of laughing deep, whereas that of 50 weeping is shrill?* Is it because a voice which comes from those who are in a state of tension is shrill, and that which is shrill is weak? Now both these characteristics are found rather in those who are weeping; for they are in a state of greater tension and they are weaker. Why is it that the voice, being air which has assumed 51 a certain form and is carried along,* often loses its form by dissolution, but an echo, which is formed by such air striking on something hard, does not become dissolved, but we hear it distinctly ?° Is it because in an echo refraction takes place, not dispersion? It starts then as a complete whole and continues to be so.° Also, the effect produced upon it is due to a similar agency ;" for it is refracted from the air in the hollow, not from the hollow itself. Why is it that when one person makes a sound and 52 a number of persons make the same sound simultaneously, the sound produced is not equal nor does it reach corre- spondingly farther?’ Is it because each of them thrusts forward his own portion of air and they do not all impel the same air, except to a very small extent? The result " Reading with Bonitz (of. c7¢., p. 412) idv for 63 see also note on 899» 24. * This problem is more fully treated in chapter 58. The same question ts treated in chapters 13 and 15. Reading ¢uri cat Gepdpevos, Suadverac (W. D. R.); cp. gor? 17, Gpachapter.23: ONC OOlMZOs i.e. the air in the hollow upon which the sound strikes and from which it is refracted, resembles the air in the hollow of the mouth from which the sound first proceeded. Cp. xix. 2, Reading yeywracw (cp. go1) 31). ey 4 5 tf BOOK XI. 52 go4” is much the same as when a number ot persons throw stones but each throws a different stone, or at any rate most of them do so. Neither in the latter case will any go5? missile travel far (or at any rate not correspondingly farther),’ nor in the former case will the voice reach farther. For this great voice is that of many, not of one; so at a short distance it appears correspondingly greater (just as a number of missiles reaches the same spot), but at a great distance this is no longer so. 53 Why do those who are nervous have deep voices, but those who are afraid speak shrilly,? though a feeling of shame is a kind of fear?* Or are the two conditions really very different? For those who feel shame blush (and nervousness is a kind of shame), whereas those who are afraid turn pale. It is clear then that in those who are afraid the heat fails in the upper part of the body, so that the breath, being weak, sets only a little air in motion; and that which is small in bulk travels quickly, and in the voice quickness is shrillness. But in those who feel shame the heat in the region of the breast travels upwards, as is shown by the fact that they blush. Now a strong force® sets a great mass of air in motion, and a great mass travels slowly, and in the voice slowness is deepness. 15 or ° 54 What is the cause of hesitation of speech?* Is it due to the chilling of the region in which the sound is pro- duced, and to a condition resembling apoplexy in that part of the body?’ This is why those who hesitate, if warmed with wine and deriving thence a continuity of speech, are better able to connect their words together. 1 i.e. in the rare event of two persons helping to hurl the same stone. * The same problem is treated in chapter 32. ® And dywria is a kind of shame, see below. For the difference between PdSos and dyavia see 86971 ff., "7 ff., and note on 7d, ®2. ‘ It is impossible in English to find separate words to express aides and aloxivn. aicydvn is ‘shame’, but aids is a more complicated feeling which includes ‘shame’, ‘awe’, ‘honour’, and a ‘sense of wounded honour’; here it seems to denote a combination of ‘shame’ and ‘awe’ or ‘dread’. > Such as that exerted by heat. 6 The same problem is treated somewhat differently in chapter 60. 7 Cp. 903” 8-10 and note. LZ 9°95 20 25 30 a9 995 PROBLEMATA Why is it that of all animals man alone is apt to become hesitating in speech?! Is it because he alone possesses the power of uttering words, while the other animals only have voices? Now those who hesitate in their speech use their voice, but they cannot connect their words together. Why is the voice shriller in winter and in those who are sober, and deeper in summer and in those who are drunken? Is it because the quicker a voice is the shriller it is, and it is quicker when it proceeds from one who is in a state of tension? The bodies of those who are sober are in a more solid condition than those of the drunken, and hodies are in a more solid condition in winter than in summer ; for heat and warmth have a dissolvent effect upon the body. Why does the voice come to perfection later in man than in any other creature capable of sound?? Is it because there are many variations and kinds of sounds in the human voice? For the other animals can express few or no letters ;* and that which is most elaborate and contains a large number of variations takes a long time to perfect. Why is it that the sight cannot pass through hard objects, but the voice can do so?‘ Is it because the course of the sight can only take one direction, namely, a straight line (as is shown by the rays of the sun and the fact that we can only see what is directly opposite us), whereas the voice can take many directions, since we can hear from everywhere? When therefore the sight is prevented from making its way through in a straight line, because there is no continuous passage between the eye and the object, it is impossible to see through the impeding matter. But the air and the voice, since they travel everywhere, find their way everywhere and make themselves audible. On the other hand, the sight can penetrate through liquids, but voices cannot be heard through them or hardly at all, although the liquid is rarer than the earth, because the 2 Cp. 898% 32. LAE : Cp. S09" 1: ET. A.-4858™32, 536" fs Ep; chapter 49, and xxv. 9, 55 56 57 58 BOOK XI. 58 gos” passages are small and close together and continuous, and 5 so the sight is not prevented from travelling in a straight line. For the same reason it is possible to see through glass, although it is dense, but not through a fennel-stalk, although it contains rarities, because in the former the pores are continuous, in the latter they are irregular, and their size is no advantage if they are not straight.!. The voice is not audible through water, because the empty air-spaces* in it are too small and so cannot admit the voice or let it pass through, or only with difficulty ; for the voice is a kind of air. For that.which is rarer is not necessarily more penetrable, unless at the same time the passages are adapted to that which is passing through. So also that which is rarer is not necessarily more compressible, unless its passages are of such a kind as to admit the 1; passage of other bodies. But, it may be urged, that which is rare is soft and compressible. True, but iu some things compression is impossible owing to the smallness of the passages—in glass, for example ; for its passages cannot be contracted, although it may be rarer than a fennel-stalk, for the reason already mentioned. So too with water 20 and the like. This then is clear, that, although the rare and the soft are either identical or clse of a very similar nature, yet it does not follow that the rarer a thing is the more it admits of contraction. The reason in all these cases is the same. 4 O° 59 Why is it that the sound produced becomes less if some of those who produce it are withdrawn,’ but its character is unchanged? Is it because their voice had formed part 25 of a general mingling of sound, and that which is mingled is not mingled in one part and not in another, but is mingled throughout ?* So when some of those who make 1 Reading with Bonitz (of. cit., p. 412) dtoparat, dre rhs pev of mdpot KarddAnAot, Tov Oe TapadAatTorTEs, ovbey 8 bheNos etvat KTA. 2 ra Gutkeva are the same as the mopor of the rest of the passage. ‘This must be the meaning of ¢&atpovperwy, though it is very inadequately expressed in the text. The source of this problem, like that of chapter 52, is evidently a series of questions connected with chorus singing ; and in its original setting the context doubtless made its meaning clearer. * Cp. ALXG. 977% 10 array dmavre pépos pépextar dpoiws Kai To Odov, go5° PROBLEMATA the sound are withdrawn, the yolume of sound comes forth in the same way as before from the various voices, and must therefore, though smaller, necessarily retain the same characteristics. What is the cause of hesitancy in speech?! Are those 60 who hesitate in too great a hurry because of the heat that 30is in them, and so they stumble and stop? If so, they resemble those who are angry, for they too become full of panting, with the result that a large quantity of breath comes together. Or do they pant owing to the boiling of the heat, because it is abundant and cannot come forth before the proper moment? of exhalation? Or is the right explanation the exact contrary, namely, that it is the chilling rather than the heating of the region in which 3 the sound is produced—a state resembling apoplexy in that part of the body? That is why those who hesitate, when warmed with wine and deriving thence a continuity of speech, are better able to connect their words together.* w ur Why are voices deeper in the winter?* Is it because 61 then the air is thicker and as a consequence its movement is slower, and therefore the voice is deeper? Ory is it 40 because the air passes more slowly through narrow pas- 906° sages, and the region round the larynx is closed by the cold and by the phlegm which flows into it? ° Why is it that boys, women, eunuchs, and old men have 62 shrill voices?> Is it because the movement of air which creates a shriller sound is quicker? Now it is more 5 difficult to move a greater amount of the same thing,® and so those who are in the prime of life draw in the air in greater quantities, and therefore this air, since it travels more slowly, makes the voice deeper. In boys and eunuchs the contrary occurs, because they contain less _” This problem is the same as that of chapter 54, but some alterna- tive solutions are suggested here. It appears necessary to read tov. . . xaipdr. lhis last explanation is a verbal repetition of 905% 16-19. Cp. chapter 17. Cp. chapters 4, 16, and 34. Reading mdciov dy (W. D. R.) for rdeiovos. a oF io BOOK XI. 62 906* air. Old men’s voices tremble! because they cannot control them, just as, when invalids and children take hold of 10 a long stick by one end, the other end shakes, because they have no control over it; this too is the cause of trembling in old men, namely lack of control. We must suppose also that trembling of the voice in those who are nervous or afraid or chilled is due to the same cause. For in one whose voice is in this state, since most of the heat collects 15 within as a result of the above conditions,? the rest,*® which is small in quantity, cannot control the voice; consequently it shakes and trembles. This is the reason why artists who belong to the class of those who are conscious of nervousness speak in a low voice at first, until they settle down to their work; for by keeping the voice low they 20 can control it. 1 There is an anacoluthon in this sentence, the infinitive rpéeuw being picked up by 61a rotro kal of rpeoBrrat Tpepovowy. 2 The text is disturbed. In the above rotavtny, (rod Oeppod bu) rev rowvtey has been translated. The Latin version of T. G. has: cum enim, gui vocem ita emittit, etus calor pulsus ab affectibus illis intro se colligat maxima a parte, &c. The insertion of ca/or here is quite in accordance with the doctrine that it is heat which sets the voice in motion (cp. 902” 37-9) ; also the theory of mepiotacts OY avtinepiotagts Tov Oeppou is exceedingly common in the Prodlems, see note on 876? 32. * Reading (1d) Aourdy (W.D.R.). 906* BOOK XII PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH THINGS OF PLEASANT ODOUR Why is it that perfumes produced by burning affect the I senses less at a short distance?! Is it because the effluvium is pleasanter when mingled with the air in a weak form, 25as happens in medicinal myrrh? Or can the contrary of this be the explanation, namely, that the fire destroys the odour in the immediate neighbourhood of the flames ? For the odour is produced when the perfume evaporates ; wherefore near the embers the effluvium has no odour, but it appears purer and thinner the farther away it is. 30 Why is it that the odours of burning perfumes and of 2 flowers are less sweet-scented at a close distance?’ Is it because particles of earth® are given off with the odour, and these, owing to their weight, fall more quickly to the ground, and therefore the odour is pure at a greater distance? Or is the effluvium not at its strongest either quite near to its source or very far from it? For close 35 at hand it has not yet gained strength, while at a distance it has become dissipated. It is said that trees become 3 sweet-scented upon which the rainbow has fallen. Is this true or false?* And if it is true, what can be the cause of g06° the phenomenon?° That it does not happen always and as » The same problem or kindred questions are treated in chapters 2, 4, and 9. The source of these problems is clearly Theophrastus, de Caus. Plant. vi. 17.13 fr. 3 (de Odoribus), 12, 13. 2 Cp. chapters I, 4, and 9. * For the ‘ earthy element’ in plants, cp. de Plant. 822% 12, ® 2, &c. * Néyerat yap, as Prantl (of. czz., p. 350) has shown, does not begin anew problem. Chapter 3 is a digression which raises a side issue, as in the source from which this problem is taken (Theophrastus, de Caus. Plant. vi.17.7). In several MSS. Néyerat yap... KutaoKy Wy follows TO oupBaivoy (1. 38), which shows that a difficulty was felt in beginning a new problem with a statement such as Aéyeruc ydp, instead of a question; this alteration, however, would give a form of problem which cannot be paralleled elsewhere. * Reading airiav (av) etn (so also Richards). BOOK XII. 3 a universal rule is obvious; for rainbows often occur without any visible effect on the trees. When it does happen (for it does occur sometimes and this has given rise to the saying), the effect is not produced on every kind of wood. The cause can only be attributed to the rainbow per accrdens, espe- cially if the rainbow does not really occur in nature but is an effect produced on the eye by refraction.! Now the phenomenon, as we said, does not occur whatever the condition of the wood; for shepherds say that sweet odour is noticeable after the rains which accompany the rainbow not in green or in dry trees but in burnt wood, and in particular where briers and brambles grow and trees which have sweet-scented flowers. The reason of the sweet scent is the same as in the soil; for where the soil is hot and burnt through and through, anything which grows from it is at first sweet-scented. For things which contain but little moisture, if they are burnt at all, become sweet- scented ; for the heat concocts this moisture. (So, all the world over, those parts towards the sun have a sweeter odour than those towards the north; and of the former those towards the east have a swecter odour than those towards the south, for the districts of Syria and Arabia have more soil, but Libya is sandy and free from moisture.) For there must not be a large amount of moisture—for z much moisture is difficult of concoction—nor must there be a complete absence of it, or else there will be no evaporization. These conditions are fulfilled in newly burnt wood and wood which naturally has a sweet odour in itself. This is proved to be true by the flowers, for it is through them that the wood emits its scent. The theory that sweet odour is engendered in any trees upon which the rainbow rests is due to the fact that this cannot happen without the presence of water; for it is when the wood has been wetted and has then concocted the moisture by the heat which is in it, that it gives out the vapour which is being engendered in it. But* there must not be a large amount of water; for too much water drenches the ' Cp. Meteor. 372° 18, 32; de Mundo, 395° 29 ff. * Reading ovde for ore, as suggested by Lekker. go06° i) or ° 906” 30 39 907* 5 Io 15 PROBLEMATA tree and extinguishes the heat previously caused by the burning. Now the rains which follow the rainbow, so far from being heavy, may almost be called slight. Also if there is a number of rainbows, the rain is not heavy, but it falls little and often. It is therefore natural under these circumstances that men notice nothing unusual except the rainbow and attribute to it the cause of the sweet odour. Why is it that flowers and burnt perfumes smell sweeter 4 at a distance,! whereas close at hand they have rather the smell either of vegetation or of smoke? Is it because scent is a form of heat and sweet-scented things are hot ? Now heat is light, and so, the further the perfumes pene- trate, the more does their scent become purified from other concomitant odours produced by their leaves and by smoke, which is a watery steam; at a short distance, on the other hand, the mingled odours? are simultaneously perceptible in tbe plants in which they are present. Why do things always emit a stronger odour when they 5 are in motion?* Is it because they fill a larger space of air than when they are at rest? The result is that the odour is thus transmitted more quickly to our perception. Why is it that we perceive odours less in the winter, 6 especially in frosty weather? Is it because the air is more free from motion when it is cold? The motion therefore set up by the body which produces the odour cannot have such a far-reaching effect owing to the difficulty of im- parting motion to the effluvium and to the air in which it is present. Why do perfumes have a more pungent odour when 7 they are burnt on ashes than on the fire?# And why is their odour stronger and more persistent when they are burnt on ashes? Is it because their odour is less tho- roughly concocted on ashes, and therefore greater in bulk? * Cp. chapters 1, 2, and 9. : e. the odour of the leaves and of the ‘smoke’ as well as the scent. eC pexiiielay * Cp. below, chapter 11. BOOK XIl. 7 go7® Now fire by quickly concocting their natural force alters their odour; for concoction involves alteration in that which is concocted. 8 Why do those roses in which the centres are rough 20 smell sweeter than those in which they are smooth? Is it because those roses smell sweetest which partake most of the natural characteristics of the rose? Now the rose is naturally ‘spiky’, and so it smells sweeter when its characteristics are more a centuated. 9 Why are the odours both of burnt perfumes and of flowers less pleasant at a short distance?! Is it because 25 at a short distance the earthy element is transmitted with the scent, and so mixing with it lessens its strength, whereas the odour travels to a distance? It is for this reason too that flowers when rubbed lose their scent.? 1o Are scents smoke [or air]* or vapour? For it makes a difference, in that the former is produced by fire, the 3° latter without it. And is something transmitted from the sense to the objects producing the scent or vice versa, causing a continuous motion in the adjoining air? Also, if any effluvium is given off by these objects, one would expect them to become less; yet we see that those things which have the strongest scent last the longest. 11 Why have perfumes a more pungent odour when they 35 are burnt on ashes than on fire?* Is it because their odour is less thoroughly concocted on ashes and is there- fore greater in bulk? Consequently a large quantity of the earthy element is vaporized in the process and becomes smoke; but the fire burns up the earthy element before it can escape, and so the odour is purer and reaches the senses untainted by the smoke. This is also the reason 907° why flowers when rubbed smell less sweet ; for the rubbing 1 Cp, chapters 1, 2, and 4. ; ; 2 Because rubbing brings out the earthy element, which prevails over the scent, cp. 907? 1-3, 33-4. 3 # dnp, which has probably crept into the text owing to the mention of dnp in |. 33, should be omitted, since only two alternatives are offered in the next sentence. 4 Cp. chapter 7. go7” on 1fe) al or PROBLEMATA imparts motion to the earthy element and the slow heat! does not destroy it. Why is it that sweet-smelling seeds and plants promote the flow of urine?? Is it because they contain heat and are easily concocted,’ and such things have this effect ? For the heat which is in them causes quick digestion * and their odour has no corporeal existence; for evil-smelling plants, such as garlic, by reason of their heat promote the flow of urine, but their wasting effect is a still more marked characteristic. But sweet-smelling seeds contain heat, because odour is in general engendered by heat; while evil-smelling things are unconcocted. Now anything which is to promote the flow of urine must be not only hot but also easily concocted, in order that it may accom- pany the liquids in their downward course and effect their digestion. Why is it that wines mixed with water have a less strong odour ° than when they are unmixed? Is it because wine mixed with water is weaker than unmixed wine? Now the weaker is more easily changed by any force acting upon it than the stronger." So wine mixed in the water is more easily affected than unmixed wine. Now it is characteristic of that which is easily affected’? to yield® to something else or to receive something which does not belong to it; unmixed wine, therefore, has a strong odour, but wine mixed with water is odourless. ‘i.e. thai produced by friction. * This problem is partly identical with i. 48 and is repeated in xx. 16. * Reading cimemra, cp. 865220, 92419: the reading denrd is probably due to Aerrvvec in the next line. * See note on 865% 21. > Reading frrov for darrov. ° Reading (Oarrov) égicratae in order to have a comparative to govern the genitive rov ioyuporepov. * Reading evrereorépou. 8 Reading tretéar (W. D.R.).’ 12 13 go7” BOOK xITl PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH THINGS OF UNPLEASANT ODOUR I WHY is it that urine acquires a more unpleasant odour the longer it remains in the body, whereas ordure becomes less unpleasant to the smell? Is it because the latter becomes drier the longer it remains in the body (and what is dry is less liable to putrefaction), but urine thickens, and 25 the fresher it is the more like it is to the original liquid drunk ? 2 Why is it that things of unpleasant odour do not seem to have an odour to those who have eaten them? Is it because, owing to the fact that the scent penetrates to the mouth through the palate, the sense of smell soon becomes satiated and so it no longer perceives the odour inside the 30 mouth to the same extent—for at first every one perceives the odour, but, when they are in actual contact with it, they no longer do so, as though it had become part of themselves—and the similar odour from without is over- powered by the odour within ? 3. Why have flowers an unpleasant odour when they are rubbed? Is it because the earthy element, which is in the flower, mingles with the odour ?! 4 Why is it that no living creature is pleasant to the smell 35 except the panther =—which is pleasing even to the animals, for they are said to find pleasure in its odour—and when they decay they are unpleasant to the smell, but many plants when they decay and wither become still more pleasant to the smell? Is it because the cause of evil odour is an unconcocted condition of excretion? For this reason go8* the perspiration of some people is sometimes unpleasant, Gp. GO7s 275 Tit. * Cp. Theophrastus, de Caus. Plant. vi. 5. 2. 908* PROBLEMATA particularly in those whose perspiration is not usually un- pleasant, as the result of disease.!_ Also the exhalations and eructations of those who are in an unconcocted state are unpleasant. The same cause must be ascribed for evil odour in the flesh and in that which is analogous to it (by 5 which I mean that which in other animals corresponds to flesh) ; for here too there is sometimes unconcocted excre- tion. This then when it putrefies is a cause of evil odour in living creatures and in decaying bodies. For this reason too the fat and the bony parts and the hair have no evil odour, because the fat and bones are already concocted, 1o while the hair contains no moisture. Now plants contain no excretion.2. Or is there excretion in them also, but, because plants are naturally dry and hot, is the moisture in them more easily concocted and not of a thick con- sistency ? This can be illustrated from the soil, which is pleasant to the smell in hot regions, such as Syria and Arabia, and from the fact that the plants which come from 15 there are sweet-smelling, because they are dry and hot; and such plants are not liable to decay. But animals are not dry and hot,’ and so their excretions are unconcocted and malodorous, and likewise their * exhalations, and when they decay the moisture putrefies. This does not happen in plants, because they contain no excretions. 20 Why are things of unpleasant odour more unpleasant 5 when they are hot than when they are cool? Is it because odour is a vapour and an effluvium? A vapour, then, and an effluvium is caused by heat ; fora movement takes place, and heat is the source of the movement. Cold, on the contrary, is a source of stagnation and contraction and downward movement;* but heat and all odours have an upward tendency, because they are in the air, and the organ which perceives them is above and not below; for odour penetrates to the brain and so causes perception. wb or ’ The Teubner text misprints rovod roe xray for tovotror ex Tov. * This is the Aristotelian view, cp. P. A. 650% 22, de Plantis, 817” 19. * rowittd éore kat Oepud appears to be a mixture of two readings, (1) Enpaeors kai Oepud, (2) rowtra (= Enpa kal Beppa) eore. * Reading with Richards kai (ai) duioes. * Reading fopoir, neuter of the participle of gopéw. BOOK XIII. 6 908" 6 Why, if one eats garlic, does the urine smell of it, whereas this does not happen when other things are eaten which have a strong odour? Is it because, as some of the followers of Heraclitus say,' vaporization takes place 30 in the body just as in the universe, and then, when the process of cooling succeeds, moisture is formed in the universe and urine in the body, so the vaporization from the food, when it is formed by intermixture, causes the odour (for it is odour after it has undergone change) ??_ If so, ought not all the foods too which have a strong odour 35 to produce this effect, which we know they do not? Further- more, concretions from vapour do not resume their original form—which would result in wine, for example, being produced from the vapour of wine instead of water, as actually happens—and so this part of their theory is also untrue. The truth is that garlic, alone of foods which 908° have an odour which is strong and also promotes the flow of urine, has the quality of inflating the lower part of the belly; all other such foods (radishes, for example) engender* breath higher up or else do not promote the flow of urine. But garlic* has these three qualities: it promotes the flow of urine, it engenders breath, and it does so in the lower 5 part of the body. The region round the privy parts and the bladder feels the effect of such foods owing to its nearness” and because it is liable to admit breath; that this is so is shown by the distension of the privy parts. It is clear therefore that the excretion of garlic is more liable than that of any other such food to reach the bladder with the breath, and this excretion mingling with the urine imparts its odour to it. fe) 7 Why is it that the mouths of those who have eaten nothing, but are fasting, have a stronger odour, ‘ the smell of fasting’, as it is called, but when they eat the odour 1 For other applications of the Heraclitean doctrine of dvadvpiacts cp. below 934? 33 ff., de Anima, 405 25, 26. ¢ * Reading peraBudp. $ Omitting cal before ra mvevpara. 1 «dr@ cannot stand here; it is in its proper place in the next line. The Latin version of T.G. has al/ium vero tria nimtrum haec facit, and we must read rovrw (= cxopdd@) which the context demands. ® i.e. to the lower part of the stomach. go08° 5 20 a5 30 cw wr PROBLEMATA ceases, when one would expect it to increase ? Is it because, as the stomach becomes empty, the air becomes hotter from the absence of motion and causes the breath and the excre- tions of phlegm to putrefy? That the air becomes hotter is proved by the fact that fasting also induces an increase of thirst. When food is taken, the odour ceases because it is less than that of the food; for the heat in the food overcomes the internal heat, so that it cannot undergo any process of change. Why has the armpit a more unpleasant odour than any 8 other part of the body? Is it because it is least exposed to the air?? Such parts have a particularly unpleasant odour because putrefaction takes place in them owing to the stagnation of fat. Or is it because the armpit is not moved and exercised ? Why is it that those who have a rank odour are still 9 more unpleasant when they anoint themselves with un- guents? Is it because this kind of thing happens in many instances ; for example, if something acid and something sweet are mixed, the resulting whole is sweeter? Now any one who perspires has an unpleasant odour, and unguents are productive of heat and therefore induce per- spiration. Why is it that the odour of the breath of those who ro are bent and deformed is more unpleasant and oppressive ?° Is it because the region round the lungs is contracted and bent out of an upright position, so that it does not give a free passage to the air, but the moisture and the breath, which tends to be enclosed within, putrefies ? Why is it that most unguents are unpleasant when they 1 mingle with perspiration, but others have a sweeter or at any rate not a more unpleasant odour? Do those which change as a result of movement or friction deteriorate in odour, whereas those which do not are improved? There * i.e. produce putrefaction which engenders the ‘ smell of fasting ’. 2 Cp. 8672 4-7. ’ This is quoted by Apollonius, de Afirab. as from the PAysi. Problems of Aristotle. ; 37; m the Physical BOOK XIII. 1 908° are some such perfumes, just as there are some flowers from which scents are made, which deteriorate when rubbed 909* or heated or dried, white violets, for example; but others remain the same, for instance roses. The unguents too made from flowers of the former class change, while those made from the latter do not; and so rose-perfume is least liable to change. Also unguents have a more unpleasant odour on those whose perspiration is malodorous, through 5 mingling with their opposite, just as honey when mixed with salt becomes not sweeter but less sweet. 12 Why do objects always produce a stronger odour when they are in motion?! Is it because they fill up the air? The result is that the odour is thus transmitted more to quickly to our perception. 1 This chapter is an almost verbal repetition of xii. 5. 615-25 M 909° BOOKS IN PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH THE EFFECT OF LOCALITY ON TEMPERAMENT Wuy are those who live under conditions of excessive I cold or heat brutish in character and aspect ? Is the cause 15 the same in both cases? For the best mixture of conditions benefits the mind as well as the body, but excesses of all kinds cause disturbance, and, as they distort the body, so do they pervert the mental temperament. Why is it that in Pontus corn, if exposed to the cold, 2 keeps intact for many years ?! Is it because the extraneous 30 moisture is evaporated together with the heat, as happens in grapes? For some things are evaporated by the cold and others with the heat. Why do burning fevers occur more frequently in the 3 coldest season? Is it because the cold imprisons the heat ° within? Inthe summer the contrary occurs, the interior of 25 the body being cooler than the exterior. Burning fever is the inflammation in which,® the exterior of the body being cold, the interior is in a condition of excessive heat. Why are the Ethiopians and the Egyptians bandy- 4 legged? Is it because the bodies of living creatures become distorted by heat, like logs of wood when they become dry? The condition of their hair too supports this theory; for it is curlier than that of other nations, and curliness is as it were crookedness of the hair. fe) 3 1 Cp. Theophr. de Caus. Plant. iv. 16, 2. > For avtinepiaracts rod be 0d see 867” 32 and note. * The text, as it stands, does not give any good sense, but the meaning is quite clear from a comparison with 862> 31 ff., which expressly states that burning fever comes from within and is due to the collection of heat inside the body. The simplest emendation is to read with Sylburg muperds (ev 6) trav Krh. BOOK XIV. 5 go9° 5 Why is it that in damp regions copulation is more likely to lead to the birth of female offspring ?! Is it because a large amount of moisture thickens more slowly, and in damp regions the semen is moister owing to the presence of more moisture in the temperament ? 6 Why is it that in marshy districts sores on the head are 35 quickly cured, but those on the legs only with difficulty ?? Is it because the moisture, since it contains an earthy element, is heavy, and heavy things are carried down- wards? Thus the upper parts of the body are easily concocted, because the impurities are carried downwards ; but the lower parts become full of abundant excretion which easily putrefies. 40 7 Why is it that those who live in airy regions grow old gog> slowly, but those who inhabit hollow and marshy districts age quickly? Is it because old age is a process of putre- faction, and that which is at rest putrefies, but that which is in motion is either quite free from, or at any rate less liable to, putrefaction, as we see in water? In lofty regions, therefore, owing to the free access of the breezes, 5 the air is in motion, but in hollow districts it stagnates. Furthermore, in the former, owing to its movement, the air is always pure and constantly renewed, but in marshy districts it is stagnant. 8 Why are the inhabitants of warm regions cowardly, and those who dwell in cold districts courageous ?* Is it because there is a natural tendency which counteracts the effects of to locality and season, since if both had the same effect man- kind would inevitably be soon destroyed by heat or cold ?* Now those who are hot by nature are courageous, and those who are cold are cowardly. But the effect of hot regions upon those who dwell in them is that they are cooled, while cold regions engender a natural state of heat in their inhabitants. Both races are large of stature—those 15 1 Cp. G. A. 766" 34, where the same view is stated. 2 The same problem occurs in i, 18. 3 Cp. chapter 16. 4 For this use of kate for the effects of both extreme heat and extreme cold cp. AZefeor, 382° 8 kaiewy éyera . . . TO uxpor. M 2 go09” PROBLEMATA who live in cold regions because of the innate heat in them, and those who inhabit hot districts owing to the heat in which they live; for increase of stature occurs both in those who are hot and as a result of heat, whereas cold has a con- tracting effect. Since then those who live in cold districts 20 have a powerful principle of growth in themselves, and those who live in hot regions encounter no external cold which prevents their growth, both naturally admit of con- siderable increase in stature. But this is less true of those who live in our latitudes, because the principle of growth in them is less strong, and those who live in cold regions feel the contracting effect of cold. a5 Why are those who live in hot regions longer-lived? Is 9 it because their natural condition is drier, and that which is drier is less liable to putrefaction and more lasting, and death is as it were a kind of putrefaction? Or is it because death is due to the chilling of the interior heat,' and every- thing is chilled by a surrounding medium which is colder than itself? Now in warm regions the surrounding air is hot, but in cold regions it is cold and so more quickly and effectively destroys the interior heat of the body. w o) Why are those who live in hot regions longer-lived ? 10 35 Is it because they preserve their heat and moisture better ? For death is the corruption of these.” Why is it that we become drowsier in marshy districts ? 11 Is it because there we are more cooled, and cooling, being go a kind of rest,* induces sleep, and sleep occurs during rest ? gio® Why is it that those who live on board ship, though ya they spend their time on the water, have a healthier colour than those who live in marshes? Is the weather and the free access of the breezes the cause? Now water makes men pale when it putrefies,a process which is due to the absence of movement; that is why those who live in marshy regions are rather pale. * Cp. de Luv. et Sen. 469° 18; de Vit. et Mort. 478 32. * A condensed form of the previous chapter. * Le. cold is jovyia, just as heat is kivnots. BOOK XIV. 13 13. Why is suffocating heat very frequently experienced in wintry regions, much more so than in warm districts?! Is it because of the moisture in the air? For asa result of the same heat applied to it water becomes hotter than air, and therefore damper air® becomes hotter than dry air. Or perhaps the air is not really hotter‘ in these regions, but only seems so by contrast with the general coolness, as the sun emerging from a cloud seems hotter in contrast with its effect when it is behind a cloud. 14 Why do those who live in southerly climes tend to have black eyes? Is blueness of the eyes due to excess of internal heat, whereas blackness is due to its absence, as Empedocles affirms? Just, therefore, as those who dwell in the north have blue eyes, because the internal heat is prevented from escaping owing to the external cold; so in those who dwell in southerly climes the moisture cannot escape owing to the surrounding heat, but the heat escapes because there is nothing to bar its exit, and the moisture ieft behind causes blackness; for when light departs that which is left behind is dark. Or does the pigmentation of the eye assimilate itself to the colour of the rest of the body? Ifso, the eyes of those who live towards the north are blue, because they are themselves white (for blue is akin to white); and those who dwell in the south being black, their eyes also are black. 15 Why are those who live in warm regions wiser than those who dwell in cold districts?’ Is it for the same reason as that for which the old are wiser than the young? For those who live in cold regions are much hotter, because their nature recoils owing to the coldness of the region in which they liye, so that they are very like the drunken and are not of an inquisitive turn of mind, but are courageous” and sanguine; but those who live in hot regions are sober because they are cool. Now everywhere those who feel a Bae Ae (6 ») Vy pore pos (W. ni R.). Reading Enpod for Beppod (W. Reading Geppdrepos for Enpdtepos we Dz R.); T.G. renders cal/dzor. Cp. Pol. 1327" 23 ff. . ‘eGo, 909? 10 ff. ; Qlo* 37 ff. ae, worn gIo* 5 Io 15 20 25 30 gIo* PROBLEMATA fear make more attempt to inquire into things than do the self-confident, and therefore they discover more. Or is it because the race of those who live in warm regions is more ancient, the inhabitants of the cold regions having perished 35 in the Flood,! so that the latter stand in the same relation to the former as do the young to the old? Why are the inhabitants of warm regions cowardly, and 16 those who dwell in cold regions courageous ?? Is it because human beings have a natural tendency which counteracts the effect of locality and season (for, if both had the same tendency, they would soon be destroyed) ? Now those who are hot by nature are courageous and those who are cold are cowardly. The effect of hot regions upon their in- habitants is to cool them (for, their bodies having rarities, 5 the heat escapes out of them), but those who live in a cold climate become heated in their nature, because their flesh is densified by the external cold, and when it is in this condition the heat collects internally. gIo ’ For references to the Flood in Aristotle see Po/. 12697 4 ff, Meteor. 352” 16 ff. Synesius is perhaps referring to this passage when he says (Z7com. Calvit. 22) mept jy mapotpioy ’"Aptototedns dnolv ore madatas pidocodias (v.1. iatopias) év rats peylorats POopais aroopevns eyxataNeiuuatu mepiowberta dia ovvtopiay Kai SeEvdtnTa. The doctrine of the Flood is also found in Theophrastus, cp. J. Bernays, Theophrastos’ Schrift tiber Frommighkett, p. 50. Plato refers to the Flood in Zzm. 22 A, C, 23 A, B, Crit. 109 D, 111 E; for other classical references see J. B. Mayor's note on Juvenal i. 83. * This problem is partly identical with chapter 8. gIo BOOK XV PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH MATHEMATICAL THEORY To Why is it that ofall the lines which divide a rectilinear figure into two parts that drawn from angle to angle alone bears the name of diameter?! Is it because the diameter, as its name implies, divides the figure of which it is the dia- meter into.two parts without destroying it? The line therefore which divides it at its joints? (by which I mean 15 the angles) will be the diameter; for it does not destroy the figure but divides it, like those who divide up implements of war for distribution. But a division which cuts through a composite figure in the lines which form it destroys the figure; for a rectilinear figure is constructed on angles. 2 Why is the diameter so called ?* Is it because it is the only line which divides a rectilinear figure into two parts, as though one should call it the ‘ dichameter’?* And why? 20 is it the only one that bears this name of all the lines which divide a rectilinear figure into two parts? Is it because it is the only line which divides the figure at the points where its limbs bend,® whereas all other lines divide it in its sides ? 3 Why do all men, barbarians and Greeks alike, count up to 10 and not up to any other number, saying for example, 2, 3, 4,5 and then repeating them, ‘ one-five’, ‘two-five ', 25 1 Sutuerpos has the meanings both of diameter and diagonal. 2 The rectilinear figure is conceived as something organic, its sides being members which are jointed together at the angles; this is more clearly brought out in ll. 21, 22 below. 3 A repetition in a shorter form of chapter I. 4 i.e. ‘that which measures into two parts’. All the MSS. here read diiperpos, but the emendation to d:ydperpos is certainly correct. 5 Reading with Bekker 8:4 ri for dude. ® Cp. above, ll. 14, 15 and note. gio” PROBLEMATA just as they say eleven, twelve?! Or why do they not stop at some point beyond ten and repeat from there? For every number is made up of one, two, &c., combined with a preceding number,? and thus a different number is formed ; but the counting always proceeds in fixed sets of ten. For it is clearly not the result of chance that all men * invariably 30 count in tens; and that which is invariable and universal is not the result of chance, but is in the nature of things. Is it because ten is a perfect number ? For it combines every kind of number, odd and even, square* and cube, length and surface, prime and composite. Or is it because ten is the original number, since one, two, three, and four 35 together make ten?® Or is it because the bodies which move in the heavens are nine in number?® Or is it because in ten proportions four cubic numbers result,’ from which numbers the Pythagoreans* declare that the whole universe is constituted ? Or is it because all men have ten fingers, and so, as though possessing counters that indicate gi1* the numbers proper to man, they count all other things by this quantity ? One race among the Thracians alone of all men count in fours, because their memory, like that of children, cannot extend farther and they do not use a large number of anything. (Why is it that the shapes of the heavenly bodies always 4 5 appear to us the same? Is it)? because the earth is a centre? For the shapes which appear to us are always * The Greek évdexa, Sodexa, ‘one-ten’, two-ten’, bring out the point better than the English ‘eleven’, ‘twelve’. 7 e. g. thirty-one, thirty-two, &c. * Reading with Bekker rorctrres (rates) Gaivovrat. * Omitting the commas after cipriov and retpdyevor. ° i.e. ten, not one, is the unit, which for convenience has been divided into four fractions 1, 2, 3, and 4, which added together make Io, ° i,e. there are nine planets (including the sun and moon), which with the addition of the earth make 1o. 7 e.g. in ten proportions obtained by continuous multiplication of I by 2 four cubes occur: 1 (1°), 2, 4, 8 (25), 16, 32, 64 (43), 128, 256, 512 (8°). Diels; Vorson7a 14500 Ns * This problem is not translated in T.G.’s Latin version and the text is clearly unsatisfactory. The statement of the problem is derived by Bussemaker from another ancient version. BOOKS XOViz4 on® similar, This does not seem! to be so unless one views them from the centre, but they would sometimes appear triangular, sometimes irregular foursided figures, and sometimes take other forms.? Now the earth would appear to us to be the centre of the universe, if we could view it from the heavenly bodies. For the earth being spherical, the centre of the uni- verse and of the earth will be the same. But we dwell on the surface of the earth, so that it is not from the centre but at the distance of half the diameter that the heavenly bodies appear to have the shapes that they do appear to have. What reason then is there why the appearance of their shapes should not remain the same when the distance is increased ? I ° 5 Why is it that, although the sun moves with uniform motion, yet the increase and decrease of the shadows is not the same in any equal period of time?* Is it because the angles to the objects seen, that is the angles made by the rays* of the sun and subtending equal arcs, are equal ? Now if these are equal, so also are the angles which the rays when produced® make in the triangle formed by the first ray® and the object seen and the shadow. If the angles are equal, the line which is farther from the 20 object seen must be greater than that which is less far ; for we know that this is so. Let the circumference, therefore, be divided into any number of equal parts, and let the object seen be ©. When therefore the sun at A falling on © 7 makes the shadow ©4,° the ray must fall on A.° But when the sun comes to B, the ray from B will or is} or ' Reading with Bussemaker (00) Soke. * No sense is to be made of the text as it stands; in particular there is nothing for ro(rov (1.9) to refer to. It seems probable that something has fallen out owing to homoeoteleuton, e.g. eOdxet (iv, TOU O€ kéopou dy eddKet) 1) y?)- * Putting the comma before, and not after, €v ro tow ypdvo. 4 Retaining the MS. reading tm rv dxrivoy. 5 Reading «f & atrar, cat (ds) exBaddopevar rmovovow Cat) axrives, T. G. renders guodsi 21li acquales sunt, eductos quogue inde acguales esse mecesse est, ° ie. the ray from the sun when it is at A to A, the top of the object @. 7 Reading tporBarov ro 8 (W.D.R.), cp. 91 1) 37. 8 Reading with Bussemaker @A for OA, ® Reading with Bussemaker A for A. gi* PROBLEMATA fall within @A,! and similarly again when the sun comes to I’; otherwise one straight line will touch another straight line at two points. Since therefore AB is equal to BI’, the angles which subtend them” at 4 will also be equal, for they are situated about the centre. But if the angles on this side® of 4 are equal, so also are the corresponding 3o angles in the triangle; for they are at the apices of the first pair of angles. So while the angle is divided into two equal parts,’ the line AE will be greater than the line EZ within 40.° So too with the other angles formed by the rays from the circumference. At the same time it is clear that the shadow must be shortest at midday and that then 35 its increases are least. For the sun is most over our head at midday, and stifling heat occurs both for the reason just mentioned’ and because there is no wind; for wind is caused when the sun dissipates the air near the earth. If gu’ therefore it does so simultaneously in both hemispheres, midnight and midday would naturally be windless, Reading with Kussemaker OA for OA. Reading urd Tavras. Reading with Bussemaker 778e for 77. i.e. the angle AAL equals the angle EAZ, these angles being at the apices of the triangles AAB and BAT. 5 i.e, the angle AAZ is divided into two equal parts AAE and EAZ. § Reading with Bussemaker 1) AE ris EZ év r7 AO. The fact that AF is greater than EZ proves the main point of the problem, viz. that the decrease of the shadows is not uniform in an equal period of time. 7 j.e. because the sun is directly overhead. 1 2 3 4 BOOK XV. 6 ou 6 Why does the sun penetrating through quadrilaterals form not rectilinear shapes but circles, as for instance when it passes through wicker-work? Is it because the projec- tion of the vision is in the form of acone,! and the base of a cone is a circle, so that the rays of the sun always appear circular on whatever object they fall? For the figure also formed by the sun must be contained by straight lines, if the rays are straight ; for when they fall ina straight line on to a straight line, they form a figure contained by straight lines. And this is what happens with the rays; for they fall on the straight line of the wicker-work, at the point where they shine through, and are themselves? straight, so that their projection is a straight line. But because the parts * of the vision which are cut off towards the extremi- ties of the straight lines are weak, the parts of the figure about the angles are not seen ; but what there is of straight line in the cone describes a straight line, while the rest does not, but the sight falls on part of the figure without perceiving it. For there are many things to which the sight penetrates without our seeing them, objects, for instance, which are in darkness. Reading ra (W. D.R.) for radra. Cp. chapter 13. 5 j.e. right angles. ére of the Teubner text is a misprint for dre. ev avt@ is perhaps corrupt. Reading da 16 thy Kiderov atray eis totymporbev mpogevexdeicay éexxpoverOa. T.G. renders vectis vero compacta lineis, quod per- pendiculum eorum in partem priorem adductum retorguetur. The corruption of mpooevexScicay may have been due to a desire to provide a principal verb, which is unnecessary, since cupBaiver déperOat is to be supplied from Il. 14-15. 1 2 4 6 7 8 BOOK XVI. 4 913” away from under them or whose scrotum is pulled down- 20 wards, for such persons always fall in a contrary direction and backwards, because their perpendicular is raised above the ground! and then thrust forward. For clearly the opposite of perpendicularity will be to fall backwards and downwards, and objects carried downwards would be heavier. That, therefore, which in these persons involves 25 a fall, becomes movement in rebounding objects. Neither round nor rectilinear objects therefore rebound at right angles, because the perpendicular divides the objects in motion into two parts depthways, and there cannot be several perpendiculars to the same plane surface cutting one another,” which will happen if a perpendicular is formed 30 at the moment of their impact at the point where the object in motion strikes the plane surface,? so that the original perpendicular along * which it travelled must necessarily be cut by the new perpendicular. Now since the object will be borne back, but will not be borne back at a right angle, it remains that the angle on either side of the point of impact with the plane surface must be an acute angle ; for 35 the right angle forms the division between the opposite angles. 5 Why isit that a cylinder, when it is set in motion, travels straight and describes straight lines with the circles in which it terminates, whereas a cone revolves in a circle, its apex remaining still, and describes a circle with the circle in 914 which it terminates? Both move with a circular motion, but the cylinder describes straight lines on the plane surface, while the cone describes circles because the circles which compose the cone are unequal and the greater circle always moves more quickly than the less about the same 5 1 Omitting iodfew ad’ra and reading éexmimrovow dia To Thy Kdberov peréwpov te kTA. (W.D.R.). 2 Reading atirds for atras (so too Bussemaker). 3 The text as it stands will not translate, since the repetition of ovpBnoerat gives two principal verbs. C* omits wm’ adris... réyverOa; but better sense is gained by omitting d:xyotopeioOa . ovpBnoerat, its insertion being probably due to a gloss on the words immediately following. 4 Reading 颒 fs (Bussemaker). N 2 914° = 3° I mn 2 ce) 95 PROBLEMATA centre. Now since all the circles composing the cone move at different rates, it results that the outermost circles travel over most space and describe the longest line in the same time (hence they must move in a circle); for all the circles are described by the same straight line,! and when the straight line revolves the various points on it do not describe an equal line in the same time, but can travel along an equal line only if they proceed in a straight direction, But in the cylinders, since all the circles are equal and about the same centre, the result is? that, since they touch the plane surface at all the points on them at the same time, as they roll they travel at a uniform speed (because cylinders* are uniform throughout), and reach the plane surface again simultaneously when each has completed its own circuit; thus the straight lines described on the plane surface are also equal, for the circles describe them by contact, since they both are equal and travel at the same speed. Now the lines described by the same line travel- ling in a straight direction* are straight, and so the cylinder would travel” straight along them; for it makes no difference whether you drag the cylinder over the plane surface at the line where it first ®° touched the plane surface, or whether you roll it over it;* for the result will always be that an equal and similar line made up of points on the cylinder will touch the plane surface, both when the cylinder is dragged and when it is rolled along. Why is it that the section of a rolled book, which is flat,* if you cut it parallel to the base becomes straight when ‘ ie. the line from the apex of the cone to the point of contact of the plane surface and the base of the cone. * The sense here is clear and is that of the Latin version of T.G., Evenit ut et stmul suis omnibus punctis planum contingendo parili celeritate volvantur. Hence ovpBaivec Gua tod éemurédou ra ev adrois Trav)’ anropevous onueia PépeoOae is read. * Bonitz, of. cit., p. 412, reads xtxovs for kvdivdpous; but rods kukhous is already the subject of the sentence and would not be repeated, and rots kuvAirdSpous clearly refers to cylinders in general. * i.e, when drawn along instead of being rolled. Reading dv hépoiro for avadé i, p. 390, 28 ff.; cp. Phys. 213*27. The present 914 i) La) 20 i>) toe fe) 3 35 PROBLEMATA for the air which is cut off within it is the cause of the water not entering when the tube has been closed. The air, how- ever, by itself is not the cause; for if one plunges the water- clock obliquely into the water, having first blocked up the tube, the water will enter. So Anaxagoras does not adequately explain how the air is the cause; though, as has been said, it certainly is the cause. Now air, whether impelled along or travelling of itself without any compelling force, naturally travels in a straight line like the other’ elements. When therefore the water-clock is plunged obliquely into the water, the air preserving its straight course is driven out by the water through the holes opposite to those which are in the water, and, as it goes out, the water flows in. But if the water-clock is plunged upright into the water, the air not being able to pass straight up, because the upper parts are closed, remains round the first holes; for it cannot contract? into itself? The fact that the air can keep out the water by its immobility can be illustrated by an experi- ment with the water-clock itself. For if you fill the bulb itself of the water-clock with water, having stopped up the tube, and invert it with the tube downwards, the water does not flow along the tube to the outlet. And when the outlet is opened, it does not immediately flow out along the tube but only after a momient’s interval, since it is not already at the outlet of the tube but passes along it afterwards, when it is opened. But when the water-clock is full and in an upright position, the water passes through the strainer‘ as soon as ever the tube is opened, because it is in contact with the strainer, whereas it is not in contact with the extremities of the tube. The water does not, therefore, flow into the water-clock, for the reason already mentioned, but passage is the /ocus classicus on the construction of the clepsydra, or water-clock, in its simplest form as used in the law courts to regulate the length of speeches. It appears to have been a hollow globe terminating above in a narrow neck or tube (adds) with a stopper and with several holes at the bottom, through which the water escaped when the vessel was filled and the stopper removed. * Reading rdAXa. * Reading cadrrea Oa (Bonitz). * Reading atrdv (so also Diels); T.G. renders zx sese contrahi non possit. * i, e. the holes at the bottom of the bulb of the water-clock, BOOK XVI. 8 flows out when the tube is opened because the air in it being set in motion up and down causes considerable movement ! in the water inside the water-clock. The water then, being thrust downwards and having itself also a tendency in that direction, naturally flows out, forcing its way through the air outside the water-clock, which is set in motion and is equal in force to the air which impels it but weaker than it in its power of resistance, because the interior air, since it passes through the tube, which is narrow, flows more quickly and violently and forces the water on. The reason why the water does not flow when the tube is closed is that the water on: entering into the water-clock drives the air forcibly out of it. (That this is so is shown by the breath and noise engendered in it as the water enters.”) And driving the air forcibly along it rushes into the tube itself, and? like wedges * of wood or bronze driven in by cleavage, remains in position without anything else to hold it together, until it is expelled from the opposite direction, as pegs® which are broken in wood are knocked out. This occurs when the tube is opened for the reasons already mentioned. If? this is the reason, it is only natural that it’ should not flow out or make its way forth, since the air forcibly prevents it ® and becomes inflated. (The noise which is made shows that the water is drawn up by the air, and this is a common phenomenon.) All the water then, being drawn up and being in itself? continuous, remains in the same position under the pressure of the air, until it is thrust away again by it; and, since the first part of the water remains in the same position, the rest of the water is dependent from it in 1 Reading kivnow for kevwoow; T.G. renders smotum excitat pleniorem. es: . 2 Reading épuypos eiowvros rov véaros; T.G. renders spiritus ructusgue guos ingredienle humore intus excitari sentimus. 3 Reading Bia (8) Ooty ovveomimrer eis Tov avddv avroy (Kal) xaburep. . , \ . 7 4 Reading eumeora with Y*. ® Reading, with Diels, ézovpous. ® Reading «? with all the best MSS., and placing a comma after TAUTA. 7 Reading atrd (Bussemaker). ; ua ® Reading #) €£¢{évau kwAV) ovtos (with Diels) iq rou dépos. ee LY, 9 Diels reads air@ (sc. T@ dépt). 914 b gI5" bt an g15* PROBLEMATA one continuous mass. It is only natural that this should be 20 so; for it is the property of the same thing to move some- thing from its own place and to hold it when it has moved it! and to do so for a longer time, if that which holds and that which is held are of equal force, or if that which holds * is stronger, as occurs in the present case ; for air has greater force than water. a5 Why is it that the parts of plants and of animals which 9 have no functional importance are all round—in plants, for instance, the stem and the shoots, and in animals the legs, thighs, arms, and chest—and no whole or part is triangular or multi-angular? Is it due, as Archytas* used to say, to 30 the fact that in natural movement the proportion of equality is always present (for he holds that all things move in a proportion), and that this is the only proportion which can return to itself, and so it forms circles and rotundities wherever it occurs? Why do extremities always take rounded forms? Is it 10 because nature makes everything as excellent and as 35 beautiful as the available material permits, and a rounded form is the most beautiful, being as uniform as possible ? Why does a circular object* when it is thrown at first 11 describe a straight line, but, as it ceases to move, describe a spiral, until it falls? Does it describe a straight line at first, because the air on either side of it alike keeps it g15° upright? The inclination then to either side being equal, the line also which it describes must be of such a nature that it divides the space on either side of it equally, and such a line is a straight line. But when it inclines to one side, because the air on either side of it is not even, it no longer describes an equal line with its inner 5 and with its outer edge, but is forced to describe a circular line. Reading as ékxivnoev (Bussemaker) for as éxeivns. Reading 16 ta xov (so too Bussemaker), The Pythagorean philosopher. _* The writer has no doubt a flat-edged discus in mind as the circular object, 1 2 3 4 BOOK XVI. 12 Q15 12 Why is it that in magnitudes of uneven weight, if you set the* lighter part of them in motion, the object thrown revolves in a circle, as happens for example with loaded dice if you throw them with the unweighted side towards you?’ Is it because the heavier part cannot travel at the 10 same speed as the lighter when hurled with the same force ? Now since it must necessarily move, but cannot do so in the Same manner, that is in a straight line, it must take an inward direction and revolve ; just as, if part of the object had as a whole remained motionless owing to a weight in the centre, the part next to the person setting the object in motion would have moved so as to occupy the position of the part away from him, while the farther side would have moved towards him. But when the whole object moves and, as it travels, has a weight in the middle, it must necessarily behave in the same manner.* ~ vu 13. Why is it that objects which are travelling along, when they come into collision with anything, rebound in a direc- tion opposite to that in which they are naturally travelling, and at similar angles? Is it because they move not only with the impetus which accords with their own nature but 20 also with that which is due to the agent which throws them ? Their own impetus then ceases when they reach their own proper position (for everything comes to rest when it reaches the position to which it is naturally carried), but, owing to the extraneous impetus, it is forced to continue to move, not, however, in a forward direction, because it is prevented 25 from doing so, but either sideways or in a direct line backwards.* Now every object rebounds at similar angles, because it is travelling to the point to which it is carried by the impetus which was imparted by the person who threw it; and at that point it must be travelling at an acute angle or at a right angle. Since then the repelling object stops the movement in a straight line, it stops alike the moving 1 Reading Budpos for Babos ; see note on 913° 34. ? Reading (10) xoupdrepov with Richards; cp. 913° 35, O15” of. * This problem is partly identical with chapter 3 above. “i.e. revolve: 5 Cp. chapter 4. ® We should probably read émabev (W. D. R.) for dp6dv. gI5° 30 35 PROBLEMATA object and its impetus. As then in a mirror the image appears at the end of the line along which the sight travels, so the opposite occurs in moving objects, for they are repelled at an angle of the same magnitude as the angle at the apex! (for it must be observed that both the angle and the impetus are changed), and in these circumstances it is clear that moving objects must rebound at similar angles. 1 Let A be the point from which the object is thrown, and BC a wall against which it strikes at the point D. The angle which it forms, 4 DC, will be 7 kara Kopupiy yevia. The object will rebound to & forming the angle BYE which will equal the angle 4DC. Thus the object rebounds ‘at a similar angle’. The above is a case where the object strikes the wall at an acute angle; if it strikes it at right angles the similar angles will be right angles. E B 915 BOOK XVII PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH ANIMATE THINGS I Wy do those who are unsymmetrical appear larger when set side by side with other men! than by themselves ? Is it because that which is symmetrical is one, and symmetry more than anything else gives unity to a thing, and that 916 which is one tends to be indivisible, and the indivisible is smaller, whereas asymmetry by causing diversity creates a multiplicity? When things therefore are seen by them- selves, their dimensions are less likely to be noticed; but this is not so when they are seen side by side with one another. That then which is indivisible appears to be one, 5 and the impression which it makes on the beholder is one because of its symmetry. But that which is unsymmetrical makes a greater impression, as though it were many, and appears greater because, though in reality only one, it seems to be many ; for it partakes of the nature of magni- tude, because it is continuous, and of number, because of the inequality of its parts; and so being increased in both to these respects, it naturally appears great by the side of that which is simple and one. 2 Why do animals and plants grow more in length than otherwise? Is it because length increases three times over, width twice, and depth once? For length is the first and original dimensign, and so it increases both of itself, and secondly in combination with width, and thirdly in combina- 4 on * addyous, if retained here, must be used not in its fullest reciprocal sense, but more generally of ‘other men’, i.e. members of the same species but not dovpperpo. If this involves too much straining of the meaning of aAAyAovs, the simplest change is to dAdous. It is quite clear from 916 11 that the unsymmetrical are contrasted not with one another but with the symmetrical (there | called 76 dm\otv kat ev). The Latin version implies the reading cupperpous, which i is perhaps right, the reading adAndovs having arisen either from map’ adda of 9168 5, or from a gloss on dovppérpous copied by mistake for oupperpous. 916" 20 (a) fo} 35 PROBLEMATA tion with depth. But width implies an increase in two dimensions only, in itself and at the same time in depth.’ In what sense must we understand the terms ‘ prior’ and 3 ‘posterior’? As those who lived in the time of Troy are ‘prior’ to us, so are those who lived before them ‘ prior’ to them and so on ad zufinitum? Or since there is a beginning and a middle and an end of the universe, and when a man, as he becomes old, reaches the limit and turns again towards the beginning,? that® which is nearer to the beginning is earlier, what prevents our being nearer to the beginning than to the end, in which case we should be ‘prior’? Just as the course‘ of the firmament and of each of the stars is a circle, why should not also the coming into being and the decay of perishable things be of such a kind that the same things® again come into being and decay? This agrees with the saying that ‘human life is a circle’.6 To demand that those who are coming into being should always be numerically identical is foolish, but one would more readily accept the theory of the identity of the species. And so we should ourselves be ‘prior’, and one might suppose the arrangement of the series to be such that it returns back in a circle to the point from which it began and thus secures continuity and identity of composition. For Alcmaeon‘ declares that men perish because they cannot link together the beginning to the end *—-a clever saying, if one Supposes that he uses it metaphorically and the literal meaning is not insisted upon. If then human life is a circle, and a circle has neither beginning nor end, we should not be ‘ prior’ to those who lived in the time of Troy nor they ‘ prior’ to us by being nearer to the beginning. Reading Bd6« for peyéder with Bonitz, of. cét., p. 412. i.e. the point where existence and non-existence meet. Omitting dé. * Reading, with Richards, 1) dopa. Reading tavra for taira, Cp. Phys. 22324 ; Herodot. i. 107 ; Tac. Ann. iii. 55. Alcmaeon of Croton, cp. J/e¢. 986227 and Ross's note; 4. A. 492° 14, §81° 16; and Diels, Vorsokr.', p. 135, 10. “i.e. when a man reaches the end of life, personal identity is lost and the new life starts with a new personality. BOOK XVIII PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH LITERARY STUDY I Why is it that some people, if they begin to read, are 916” overcome by sleep even against their will, whereas others wishing to be overcome by sleep are kept awake by taking up a book?! Is it because in those in whom movements of breath take place owing to the coldness of their nature 5 or of melancholic humours, which by their coldness engender an unconcocted excretion of breath—in such people, the intelligence, when it is set in motion and does not think of anything with concentrated attention, is checked by the second movement,’ which has a cooling effect, and this causes a tendency to sleep? But when they fix the intelli- gence firmly upon something, as happens in reading, they 10 are impelled by the heating movement, which is unchecked by anything,andso they cannot go tosleep. In those who are in a natural condition, however, when the intelligence, which is very powerful, stands at a single point and does not keep changing from one subject to another, every function in that region * (whose inactivity involves sleep) is at a standstill ; * and when the intelligence stands still and is as it were weary, being situated in the head, it weighs it down and produces sleep. But as long as the mind moves naturally, it does not go to sleep; for it is then that it is most alive, and wakefulness rather’ than sleeping is the cause of life. _ or 1 A comparison with the parallel passage in chapter 7, which clearly deals with the same problem and is partly identical with the present chapter, shows that rods d€ BovAopevous mover ¢ypnyopévat Must be read here; cp. 917% 19 and note (so too Bussemaker). 2 i.e. the unconcocted excretion of breath. 5 i.e. the head. 4 Reading iorara: as in 917% 30. ; ® Reading with Bonitz, of. c7t., 413, (uaddov) atridy eorw; but airov is possibly itself corrupt and some such word as (d:airépor, ‘more characteristic of’, seems to. be required. 916° PROBLEMATA Why are contentious disputations useful as a mental 2 exercise? Is it because they involve frequent victories and 20 defeats? They therefore quickly instil a spirit of rivalry ; for, when men are victorious, they are induced by their joy to contend yet more, and, when they are defeated, they continue the struggle in hopes of turning defeat into victory. Those engaged in struggles of other kinds act in the same way, and so when fighting and getting the worst of it often refuse to come to terms. 25 Why isit that in rhetorical displays men prefer examples! 3 and fables? rather than enthymemes?* Is it because they like to learn and to learn quickly, and this end is achieved more easily by examples and fables, since these are familiar to them and are of the nature of particulars,* whereas enthymemes are proofs based on generalities, with which 30 we are less familiar than with the particular? Further, we attach more credence to any evidence which is supported by several witnesses, and examples and fables resemble evidence, and proofs supported by witnesses are easily obtained. Further, men like to hear of similarities, and examples and fables display similarities.° Why do we talk of an orator, or a general, or a business 4 man as being shrewd, but not use the term of a musician or of anactor? Is it because the powers of the two last are exercised apart from any desire of gaining an advantage (for their aim is pleasure), whereas the three first aim at some advantage? For a good orator or general or business g17* man is one who can gain some advantage, and shrewdness consists mainly in getting the better of some one else. wo on Why is the philosopher generally regarded as superior 5 to the orator?" Is it because the philosopher treats of the nature of injustice, while the orator says that such and such a person is unjust, and the orator states that such and such 1 Cp. Rhet. 1357” 25-30, Rhet. ad Alex. 1429* 21 ff. ? Adyou here equivalent to pt, cp. below, 1. 35. ° Cp. Rhet. 1357* 32 ff., Rhet. ad Alex. 1430% 23 ff. SO TRAPS WOE OG, OSs > Cp. Rhet. ad Alex, 1429% 25-7. * This problem is repeated in a longer form in xxx. 9. BOOK XVIII. 5 917° a person is a tyrant, while the philosopher discusses the nature! of tyranny ? 6 Why isit that some men spend their time in pursuits which they have chosen, though these are sometimes mean, rather than in more honourable professions? Why, for example, should a man who chooses to be a conjurer or an actor or a piper prefer these callings to that of an astronomer or an orator? Is it because some men would prefer to undertake the more honourable professions but do not do so because 10 they do not feel confident that they would succeed in them ? Or is it because each man chooses the calling in which he thinks he can excel and devotes himself to that which he chooses, giving up the greater part of each day to it, in order that he may improve his own proficiency? in it? Now when men have chosen a calling from the first and have become accustomed to it, they lose the power of discriminating between the higher and the lower; for their mind is warped by their bad choice. — ur 7 Why is it that some persons, if they begin to read, are overcome by sleep even against their will, whereas those who wish to go to sleep are made unable to do so if they take up a book?? Is it because in those in whom 20 movements of breath take place owing to the coldness of their nature or of melancholic humours, which by their coldness engender an unconcocted excretion of breath—in these when the intelligence is set in motion and does not think of anything with concentrated attention, the intelli- gence is checked by the second movement,‘ and so they undergo a great mental change and go to sleep (for the 25 movement of breath is overcome)? But when they fix their intelligence on something, as happens in reading, they are impelled by the movement of breath’ unchecked by any- 1 Reading, with Richards, zroiov, : * Reading xpatiorevwv (cp. above, |. 12) for kparirrus wv. 3 The problem of this chapter is obviously the same as that of chapter 1 and we must read rods 5é Bovdopevous od moret Svvardar (W. D.R.). * Reading 17 érépa xunoet, cp, above, 916” 8 and note. ; 5 The parallel passage (916° 10) has Beppartexys, but mvevpaTttkys Can stand here since % mvevparix) and 7 Oeppaytixy xivijots both refer to 917” PROBLEMATA thing, and so cannot sleep. But in those who are in a natural condition, when the intelligence is fixed on one 30 thing and does not keep changing from one subject to another, every function in that region (the inactivity of which involves sleep) is at astandstill. (Similarly during a rout,! if the leader halts, all the forces under his command halt also.) For naturally that which is light rises, while the heavy sinks.2 As long, therefore, as the mind moves naturally, it does not go to sleep; for it is then that it is 35 most alive.2 When the mind stands still and is as it were weary, the intellect undergoes a change, and the corporeal elements rise to the head and produce sleep. Reading might be expected to prevent sleep ; but wakefulness is not due to the fact that we are thinking (for then our mind is most concentrated) but to the constant change; for the intellectual activities which cause wakefulness are those in which the mind searches and finds difficulties rather than those in which it pursues continual contemplation ; for the former cause lack of concentration, while the latter do not. log 917 Why is it that in contentious disputes no trifling can ever 8 occur? Isit because such reasoning is apparent syllogism, and syllogism involves only a brief discussion ; and, if it be prolonged, after a time the false reasoning is detected and the disputant can withdraw the premisses which he has granted ? or Why do we feel more pleasure in listening to narratives 9 in which the attention is concentrated on a single point than in hearing those which are concerned with many subjects ? Is it because we pay more attention to and feel more pleasure in listening to things which are more easily comprehended, and that which is definite is more easily comprehended ie) the same thing, viz. the movement of breath when it is unaffected by natural cold or melancholic humours. Cp. Post. An. 100° 12. * This sentence seems out of place here and would make better sense if it were inserted after movet rév Urvoy, |. 36. ° ovtw yap €xee gives no sense and is obviously corrupt. As the parallel passage 91617 has ¢j yip tére pddora, we should here read ote yap (7 padiora or something similar. BOOK XVIII. 9 g17” than that which is indefinite? Nowasingle thing is definite, but a plurality partakes of the nature of the infinite. io =Why do we like to hear of events which are neither very old nor quite new? Is it because we discredit events which occurred long before our time and take no pleasure in 15 events which we discredit, while we can still as it were perceive very recent events and so take no pleasure in hearing about them ? 645-25 O g17° BOOK XIX PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH MUSIC Wuy do those who are grieving' and those who arelI enjoying themselves alike have the flute played to them? 20 Is it ia order that the distress of the former may be lessened and the pleasure of the Jatter increased ? Why is it that, when the same person uses the same vocal 2 power, the sound travels farther when he is singing or shouting with others than when he does so by himself ?? Is it because the doing of anything with a number of other people—compressing, for instance, or pushing something— does not produce an effect in simple proportion to the a5number of persons; but, just as a line two feet long describes a circle ® which is not double but quadruple that described by a line a foot long, so collective actions have greater force in proportion to their number than when they are carried out separately ?* When, therefore, a number of persons sing together, the force of their voice unites, and impels the air simultaneously, so that it travels many times as far ; for the voice produced by all is the multiple of each single voice. 30 Why does the voice waver most when singing parhypfate* 3 and to no less a degree than when singing wefe and the higher notes, although the interval is greater? Is it because 1 The reference is to the use of the flute at funerals. ZAG DEX ho. * Vollgraff is no doubt right in thus interpreting ypadew in its usual sense In geometry. - * i.e. multiplication takes place and not mere addition. ° The following is the usual scheme employed by Peripatetic writers (see Jan, A/usice Scriptores, p. 81): hypate parhypate lichanos mese paramese trite paranete nete é g a é Gi a Cre There seems no reason why, in a diatonic scale, arhyfate should be specially difficult to sing. Bojesen and Stumpf therefore suppose that the reference is to an enharmonic scale, in which the interval from pee to parhypate is a quarter-tone, which would actually be hard to take. BOOK XIX. 3 917° the interval! is more difficult to sing and is a primary element ?* Now the difficulty is due to the straining and pressure of the voice; and these require an effort, and things which require an effort are more likely to fail. 4 But why is arhyfate difficult to sing, but Aypate easy, 35 although there is only a quarter-tone between them? Isit because Ayfare is accompanied by relaxation of the voice and also because after tension it is easy to slacken?‘ It is probably for the same reason that what a man says with violence,® he says with this note or paranete.© [For one must . . . with a consciousness of the character which one is representing and under conditions most akin to it according to one’s purpose.]*’ [But what is the first condition of 918* concordant music ?] * 5 Why do men take greater pleasure in listening to those who are singing such music as they already know than music which they do not know?" Is it because, when they recognize what is being sung, it is more obvious that the 5 singer is as it were achieving ' his aims, and this is pleasant to contemplate? Or is it because it is less'! pleasant to learn? And the reason of this is that in the one case there is acquisition of knowledge, in the other the use and recog- nition of it. Further, that which is familiar is always pleasanter than the unfamiliar, 6 Why does recitation with a musical accompaniment have 10 a tragic effect when introduced into singing? Is it owing 1 Stumpf has been followed here in taking ravrny and avn to refer to the quarter-tone. 2 j,e. the quarter-tone is the smallest interval in the musical scale. 3 The meaning seems to be: ‘Why is it easier to sing the same interval downwards than upwards ?’ 4 Reading with Jan avayaday for dvw Baddrev. 5 Reading with Bussemaker and Stumpf Biav for piav. The inter- pretation here adopted is that of Stumpf. 6 We should, with Stumpf, expect paramese rather than faranete here. a 7 This sentence (which is incomplete, since there is no infinitive after Oe?) appears to be out of place here. * This sentence appears to be the statement of another problem, the solution of which is lacking. ° Cp. below, chapter 4o. 10 Omitting 6; cp. * 24. 11 Reading with Richards ) éri (frrov) 7dv. 02 918? I “st 20 PROBLEMATA to the resulting contrast? For the contrast gives an ex- pression of feeling and implies extremity of calamity or grief, whereas uniformity is less mournful. Why did the ancients, when they gave the scale seven notes, leave in Aypaze and not nefe?' Is this a false state- ment, since they left in both and omitted ¢vz/c, or is the truer answer that the lower note contains the sound of the higher note,? so that Aypate gives the impression of the octave above better than (ze¢e for the high note needs* more force, while the low note is easier to utter) ? Why does the low note? contain’ the sound of the high note?" Isit because the low note is greater and resembles an obtuse angle, while the high note resembles an acute angle ?* Why do we listen with greater pleasure toa solo when a man sings it to the accompaniment ofa flute or lyre ?* Yet the same tune is sung note for note? with or without 1 Cp. below, chapter 47. For the scheme of eight notes used by the Peripatetic writers, see note on 917” 30. Two stages can be traced in the earlier evolution of the seven-stringed lyre (see Jan, of. c¢., p. 81). (a) The earliest form was: paramese hypate parhypate lichanos mese_ or trite paranete nete é Bhs £ a 6 raf (ie (6) After the time of Terpander Zri¢e (= 6) was omitted (cp. below, 9207 15-17), and we/e was made equivalent to e’: paramese hypate parhypate lichanos mese_ or trite paranete nete € f £ a a a a The Peripatetic, being familiar with the eight-note scale which was evolved from the seven-note scale, inverts the order in which the two systems came into being. The question arises why mefe (= e’) was omitted as in system (a) above. The answer, having system (d) in mind, asks whether it is not a truer statement of the case to say that nete (= a’) was retained and érz¢e (= 6) rejected. ® The phrase ioxyve rov ths déurépas POdyyov gives no meaning since ioxver is a neuter verb and cannot govern an accusative. If it is retained, we must read something like toyver (wor) tod ris d£uTEpas pésyyov. A better alternative is to read isyer, with Ejichtal and Reinach (Rev. Ev. Grec. v. (1892) p. 33), who compare 918 40 4 dri 15 Bapv péya earl, Gore Kparepdv ; kai Eveotiv ev TO weydd@ TO pueKpdr. * Some verb must be supplied to complete the sense: ézei (Seirat) 7d 3&0 Svvduews (Wagener) is more probable than the insertion of oypetor by the Teubner editors. evel... POeyEaoGar seems, however, quite irrelevant here. * ie. Aypate. ° Reading toye:, as above, for ioyve. 6 ie. mete. 7 Cp. de. An. 420” 1 ff. ~ Cp. below, chapter 43. ® Reading mpooxopda (Jan); cp. Plato, Zaws, xii. 812 D. 7 8 9 BOOK XIX. 9 918° accompaniment. This creates a problem, for if it gave more delight to hear more of the same thing,! we ought to sing to the accompaniment ofa large number of flute-players and this 25 ought to be even more pleasant. Is it because the singer is more obviously achieving his aim when he is accompanied y a flute or lyre? And the accompaniment of a number of fluie-players or lyres does not add to the pleasure, because it drowns the singing. 10 Why, if the human voice is more pleasant than an instru- ment,” is the voice of a man singing without words—as, for 30 example, when making meaningless warblings*—not so pleasant as a flute or lyre? Or is it true that even in the case of an instrument we get less pleasure if it is not expressive of meaning? The instrument, however, has an advantage eyen in its actual effect ; for while the human voice is pleasanter, instruments strike the note better than the human mouth, wherefore they are pleasanter to hear than meaningless warblings. 11 Why is the voice higher when it echoes back?‘ Is it 35 because it is smaller,” having become weaker ? ° 12 Why does the lower of two strings sounded together always give the tune? For if one omits Aaranele, when one should sound it with sese, the tune is given none the less ; but if one omits zzese, when one should sound both, the tune is lost.’ Is it because the low note is large and 4° therefore strong, and the less is contained in the greater ?* So too if “ypfate is stopped down in the centre,’ two meZes are produced. 918” 1 Reading ei yup repre (Jan) paddov 70 abrd mAéov Cov, eder xrX. * Putting a comma after ¢wr7 instead of after ddovros. 3 For the meaning of repericew see An. Post. 83° 33. ‘ For amnxeiv cp. 899° 24. 5 Reading with Vollgraff éAdrrov. ° Cp. above xi. 6 and 20. Lord Rayleigh (7heory of Sound, ii. p. 152) notes that echoes returned from such reflecting bodies as a group of trees are sometimes raised an octave. 7 Reading dy yap édon rijy mapavyryy, déov cup ira ty wéoy, yiverat rd pédos odbey Arruv' dy Sé thy peony, d€ov dupa Wrdat ov yivera. This is the reading of Monro, except that he reads rapapyéonv, for which Fétis and Gevaert read sapavyjryv. The Teubner editors wrongly report Monro as reading ida. ee Cps 605220; ¥ j,e. by striking the string on either side of the central point. The g18° PROBLEMATA Why is it that the low note in the octave gives the effect 13 of unison with the high, but not vice versa?! Is it because, 5 if possible, the sound of both notes is in both notes, but, failing that, in the low note, since it is greater ? Why does the accord in the octave escape notice, and 14 why does there appear to be a simple unison, as for example in the Phoenician lyre and in the human voice?” For the upper and lower notes* do not give the same sound but are analogous‘ to one another at the octave, Is it because their 10 sound appears to be practically the same owing to the analogy, and analogy is equality in sounds, and equality is of the one?® The same deception occurs also in the pipes. Why were ‘nomes’ not composed in antistrophes like 15 all other songs, that is, choric songs? Is it because the ‘nomes’ were assigned to virtuosi, and as these were 15 already able to imitate different characters and sustain their parts, the songs composed for them became long and elabo- rate? Like the words, therefore, the music conformed to the imitation, becoming constantly different ; for it was more essential for the music to be imitative than the words.® (For this reason too dithyrambs, since they have become imita- tive, no longer have antistrophes, as they had formerly.) The 20 reason is that in the old days free citizens themselves formed the choruses ; it was difficult, therefore, for a large number fact that hyfate can be made to produce two wefes is a proof that the less is contained in the greater. + i.e, a note contains as a harmonic or upper partial the note an octave higher than itself, whereas it does not contain the note an octave lower than itself. Our author seems to have had some know- ledge of ‘undertones’, i.e. harmonics which work downwards instead of upwards, so far as the octave is concerned. ? e.g. a man and a boy, when they think they are singing the same tune, are really singing an octave apart. * Reading with Eichtal and Reinach ep rots 6£(éow kal rois Bap )éouw évra, * Reading dva Adyor. * Reading dia 1d avddoyor, (1d S€ dvaddoyov) iadrns emi POdyyer, rd 8 igov tov évds, This is clearly the text rendered by T. G., who translates ‘an modus proportionis facit. ut sonus quasi idem esse appareat? pro- portio enim in sonis aequalitas est, aequale autem omne ad unitatem referendum est’. ‘This is certainly true of the only ‘nome’ of which the words have come down to us, the Persae of Timotheus, which resembles the meaningless libretto of an inferior opera and must have depended tor its effect on the music and the mimetic powers of the performer. BOOK XIX. 15 to sing together like virtuosi, so they sang in one mode! For it is easier for a single person to make many changes than for a large chorus, and for a professional than for these who are preserving the character of the music. And so they made the music more simple for them. Now the antistrophic song is simple; for there is one rhythm? and one unit of metre. For the same reason songs executed from the stage are not antistrophic, but those sung by the chorus are so; for the actor is a virtuoso and an imitator, but the chorus is less imitative. Why is ‘antiphonal’* accompaniment! more pleasing than ‘symphonic’ accompaniment ?° Is it because in the former the consonance is more obvious than when the accompaniment of the singing is ‘symphonic’? For of the two notes played by the instrument one must be in unison with the note sung, and so two notes contending against one drown the other note.® Why is it that singing in fifths’ does not give the effect of ‘antiphony’?* Is it because one ‘symphonic’ note is 1 evappovia Y%, ev dppovia C*X* AP. Chabanon’s conjecture ey pua dppova has been adopted ; ‘the corruption can be explained by suppos- ing that pea was written a. * Reading with Jan eis puOuds. The MS. reading apiOpyos can be explained as a misunderstanding of a’ (= els) puOpics. 3 dvridwvos can be applied in general to any reproduction of a tune in a different part of the scale; but it is frequently used in these problems in the technical sense of the accord in the octave, the only interval in the view of the Greeks which could be used consecutively in singing. ovppwvos is used either (1) of any consonance (cp. the use of cupgGevery in 1. 31, and 9 ba ravdy cvpporia (1. 40), and chapter 39, where ro otwvor includes all consonances), (2) in the technica] sense as applied to musical accompaniment when two notes are played by an instrument, one of which is the same as that of the voice (6pudpwvos), the other consonant with the voice, i.e. a fourth or a fifth higher. épopwvia (== unison) occurs when two identical notes are used simul- taneously. 4 That harmonized musical accompaniment is here intended is shown by the words of Il. 31-2 érav mpos ovppoviay déy (cp. D. B. Monro, /. of 7. 1, pt. ii, pp. 87-8). ® Cp. chapters 35 and 39. : : ° je. one of the notes played on the instrument is identical with that uttered by the singer; these two notes drown the third note, i.e. the second note played on the instrument. 7 T. G. appears to render d:a revte (kat dua Tecoupar). ‘ 8 ‘Antiphonal’ is here used in its wider sense of reproducing the same tune in a different part of the scale. 918” tw nr w g18” PROBLEMATA 35 not the same as the other ‘symphonic’ note,' as are the notes which are an octave apart? For in the accord® in the octave the deep note in the lower part of the scale is analogous to the high note in the upper part; it is, there- fore, as it were at once the same and different. But this does not occur in fifths and fourths, so that the sound of the ‘antiphonal’ note does not appear, for it is not identical. 40. Why is it that the accord in the octave alone is used in 18 gig* singing ?* For in ‘ magadizing’* this and no other accord is used. Is it because it alone is made up of ‘antiphonal’ notes, and with ‘ antiphonal’ notes, if but one be sung, the same effect is produced as if both were sung? For the one note in a way contains the sounds of both, so that, when one is sung, the concordant note® at this interval is also sung; and when they sing both,® or when one note is sung and the other played on the flute, they both as it were sing one note. Therefore the accord in the octave alone is sung, because the ‘ antiphonal’ notes have the sound of one note. or But why does the power of producing the effect of a single 19 10 note belong only to ‘antiphonal’ notes? Is it because they alone are equidistant from mzese?? The presence then of this mean creates a certain similarity in their sounds, and the ear seems to tell us that it is the same note and that they are both extremes. Why is it that, if, after tuning the other strings, one alters 20 mese and uses the instrument, the ear is offended and an 15 unmusical effect is produced not only when mese is used, * Reading with Jan 7 cvppevos 17 cvppave. ? Reading éxet with Vollgraff for éxeiyn. The meaning clearly is that there is the same succession of corresponding notes in the scale as sung by a man’s voice and by a boy’s. 3. Cp. below, chapter 39°. * The piyadis was a large stringed instrument containing at least two octaves (Athenaeus, xiv. 36; Anacreon, fr. 18; Xen. Aad. vii. 3- 32); hence payadigey comes to mean the singing of a succession of notes by different voices in octaves. : Reading with Jan ” ovpepevos for 7 auppavia. . Punctuating kai dupa adorres, i) ris per ddouévns, rhs b€ avdouperns, Gomep Ktr. _ 1 This is untrue, and the whole problem is singularly inept and clearly inserted by a writer who knew nothing of music. 21 22 23 BOOK XIX. 20 but in the rest of the piece as well, whereas, if “chanos or any other string is altered, it only seems to make a difference when that particular string is used?! Surely this is only natural; for in all good music mzese occurs frequently, and all good composers have frequent recourse to 7zese, and, if they leave it, they soon return to it, as they do to no other note. Similarly in language, if certain connecting particles are removed, such as re and xa/, the language is no longer Greek ; whereas the omission of some particles does not offend the ear, because certain particles must be frequently used, if there is to be language, but others not. So smese is as it were a conjunction among sounds, and more so than the other ? notes, because its sound occurs more often. Why is it that of singers those who are singing low notes are more conspicuous if they sing out of tune than those who are singing high? So too those who make mistakes in time in the lower notes*® are more conspicuous. Is it because the period of time occupied by the low note is longer, and this longer period is more perceptible (for,* lasting for a greater time, it creates a deeper sense- impression), whereas a quick,’ high note escapes notice owing to its swiftness ? Why does a large choir keep better time than a small one,° Is it because they look more to one man, their leader, and dance’ more slowly and so more easily achieve unity ? For mistakes occur more frequently in quick singing. Why is ypate double wete?* Is it because in the first place, when half the string is struck and when the whole 1 Cp. below, chapter 36. ; . 2 Reading with Ruelle and Stumpf @ddov for Kahov. padiora tov rahav (ped@v) is, however, possibie: ‘ particularly in good music’, cp. Above; ant O , 5 Reading with the MSS. Bapurépo. The generally accepted emenda- tion Bpudvrép spoils the sense; the question of duration being introduced in the solztion. ; : ‘ * Omitting # before ér« with Reinach and Eichthal, and punctuating aicOnrés, Ort. 5 Reading rayv with the MSS, ® Cp. below, chapter 45. 7 Reading épyovvra with Graf. ee ¥ Paks ; ® Reading with Wagener and Jan rijs yyrns 7 indryn. The solution 919° 20 2g 30 gig” P PROBLEMATA string is struck an accord in the octave is produced? So too with wind instruments,! the sound produced through _ the middle hole and that produced through the whole flute 5 give an accord in the octave. Again, in the reed-pipe an accord in the octave is obtained by doubling the length, and this is how flute-makers produce it. Similarly they obtain a fifth by means of a length in the ratio of 3 to 2.” Again, those who construct Pan-pipes stuff wax into the extreme end of the Aypaze-reed, but fill up the #e¢e-reed 10 to the middle. Similarly they obtain a fifth by means of a length in the ratio of 3 to 2, and a fourth by means of a length in the ratio of 4 to 3. Further, AyfJaze and nete*® on triangular stringed instruments, when they are equally stretched, give an accord in the octave when one is double the other in length. or Why, if one strikes sefe* and then stops it down, does hypate alone seem to resound ?® Is it because the vibration produced from Zyfaze is very much of the same nature as the sound of zefe, because it is in accord with it? When it is increased by the addition of its like, it alone is audible, the other sounds being imperceptible owing to their small- ness. 20 Why is mese (‘the middle note’) so called in the scale, though there is no middle of eight notes?* Is it because in the old days scales kad seven notes,’ and seven has a middle ? shows that Aypare is double weze in length of string. In 920% 29, where nete is said to be double Ayfate, the reference is to frequency of pitch. * rev ovpiyyey is here used generally of wind instruments, of which particular examples are given, (1) the single flute (cdpryé), (2) the reed-pipe (avAds), and (3) the Pan-pipes (atptyyes). * Deleting the square brackets inserted in the Teubner text and putting a full-stop after jurokie, There is no reason why the method of producing a fifth should not be mentioned here as well as in 1. 10, since it is a question of a different instrument. * Reading with Bojesen ai for of or ¢ of the MSS. * Deleting the second vijrnv. ° Cp. below, chapter 42. As a matter of fact the striking of Ayfate would set up a sympathetic vibration in ze/e to a much greater extent than vice versa. * A longer version of this problem occurs at chapter 44. For the usual scheme of eight notes used by the Peripatetic writers see note on 917 30. 7 See note on 9184 14. 25 BOOK XIX. 26 Bigs 26 Why do most men sing high when they sing out of tune?" Is it because it is easier to sing high than low? Or is it because singing high is worse than singing low,? and a mistake is doing what is worse ? a5 27 Why is it that of all things which are perceived by the senses that which is heard alone possesses moral character ?° For music, even if it is unaccompanied by words, yet has character; whereas a colour and an odour and a savour have not. Is it because that which is heard alone has movement, not, however,’ the movement in us to which the sound gives rise (for such movement exists also in the other 3° things which affect our senses, for colour also moves our sight), but we perceive the movement which follows such and such a sound? This movement resembles moral character both in the rhythms and in the melodic dis- position of the high and low notes, but not in their commingling ; for ‘symphony’ does possess moral character. This does not occur in the other objects of sense-perception. 35 Now these movements are connected with action, and actions are indicative of moral character. 28 Why are the ‘nomes’ (véy01) which are sung so called? Is it because before men knew the art of writing they used to sing their laws (véyuo.) in order not to forget them, as they are still accustomed to do among the Agathyrsi?’ 920% They, therefore, called the earliest of their subsequent songs by the same name as their earliest songs. 29 Why dorhythms and tunes, which after all are only voice, resemble moral characters, whereas savours do not, nor yet colours and odours?* Is it because they are movements, 5 as actions also are? Now efficient action is already moral and determines character, but savours and colours have no similar effect. Cp. below, chapter 46. Cp. 920% 23, where a low note is said to be more noble than a high. 1 2 $ Cp. below, chapter 29. _ one * Punctuating with most editors pdrov, ovxt Ty. 5 A Scythian tribe (Herod. iv. 100). &Cpachaptet2 7. 920° pe) 15 20 PROBLEMATA Why is neither the Hypodorian nor the Hypophrygian mode suitable for use by the chorus in tragedy?! Is it because they do not admit of antistrophic melody ?*_ They are used, however, from the stage, because they are imita- tive." Why were Phrynichus and his contemporaries primarily musicians? Is it because in those days the lyrical portions of tragedies were many times longer than the purely metrical ?# Why is the ‘diapason’ (accord in the octave) so called and not named after the number of notes a ‘diocto’, like the ‘diatessaron’ (fourth) and the ‘diapente’ (fifth)? Is it because the notes were originally seven in number,°® and then Terpander took away ¢vz/e and added weée, and in his time it was called ‘diapason’ and not ‘diocto’, since it was really ‘diepta’? Why is it more satisfactory for a singer to pass from a high to a low note than from a low to a high note? Is it because the former amounts to beginning at the beginning, for the wzese, or leader,® is the highest note in the tetra- chord? But in passing from a low to a high note one begins not at the beginning but at the end. Or is it because a low note is nobler and more euphonious aiter a high note ? Why are a double fifth’ and a double fourth not con- cordant, whereas a double octave is?* Is it because ' The same problem is treated at greater length in chapter 48. * Gevaert explains as follows: ‘Elles se prétaient mal A la mélodie absolue, exprimant un état d’ime permanent. Elles s’appliquaient uniquement aux chants scéniques ou semi-scéniques coupés en sections libres; elles affectionnaient en conséquence la mélopée déclamée, visant & une expression précise.’ * Reading with Wagener puyrixa. For the meaning of the term cp. 922” 17-27. * i.e. the choruses were still the principal element (as in Aeschylus’ earliest play, the Swpp/ices), and the actor who spoke and did not sing his lines took only a minor part. ® See note on 9f8* 14. * Omitting the «ai inserted by Ruelle after jyeudv. " Ov d£eav is the Pythagorean name for a fifth (ep. Nicomachus, ch. 9 in Jan’s A/us. Scripi., p. 252). * This problem is more fully and clearly treated in chapter 41. 30 31 32 33 34 35 b BOOK XIX. 34 neither a double fifth nor a double fourth is in a super- particular ratio,' though a fourth and a fifth are so?2 Why is the accord in the octave the most beautiful of all ? Is it because its ratios are contained within integral terms,” while those of the others are not so contained? For since nete is double hyfate,' as nete is two, so hy'ate is one; and as hypate is two, xefe is four; and so on. But zee is to mese in the ratio of 3 to x (for a fifth is in this ratio), and that which is in the ratio of 2 to 1° is not contained within integral terms; for as the lesser number is one, so® the greater number is one with the addition of a half, so that it is no longer a comparison of whole numbers, but fractions are left over. The like happens also with the fourth; for the ‘epitrite’’ of a term is as great as that term’ and one third as great again. Or is it because the accord which is made up of both the other two® is the most perfect, and because it is the measure!” of the melody ?™ Why (is the sound shrillest in the middle of the note? Is it because) !* in any body which is displaced the move- 1 This sentence is obviously incomplete in the MSS. and for the above translation Jan’s suggestion dis dua rerrapov ( émipdptdv) éatw has been read; cp.921”5. The meaning of émipdptov (cp. JZet. A. 10214 2) i : ety is ‘that which is aes of something else’; but the author seems to confine his attention to values of 7 not greater than 3, since only octaves, fourths, and fifths are considered. 2 A fifth being in the ratio of 3 to 2 anda fourth in the ratio of 4 to 3, a double fifth is ee ie 473) to 1, and a double fourth 26 [= 247) 4 4 9 9 to I. * Unity is always taken as the second term of the ratio; the author’s idea is that for a consonance the first term must either be an integer, as in the octave, or of the form dase (émepdpiov), as in the fourth and fifth. ' See note on 9197 I. 5 Reading 16 yap dud wivre Cipuddcov, 7) 8) rpeddtov. * Reading with Bekker and Bojesen rogovrdy re kai. 7 j,e. that which is in the ratio of 4 to 1. ® Reading with Bussemaker and Bekker écov 7° ékeivo kai. 9 i,e. the accord in the octave. 19 ie. the melody keeps within the compass of the octave. 1 Putting a question mark after peAwdias, where the problem evidently ends, as it does in Gaza’s version. ; 12 It has been generally recognized that the latter portion of this 920° 3° 35 920? PROBLEMATA ment is most violent in the middle and quieter at the 920” beginning and end, and when the movement is most violent the sound of that which is displaced is shriller? For this reason also strings which are tightly stretched give a shriller note, for their movement is quicker.1_ Now if a sound is the displacement of air or of something else,? a sound which is in the middle of its course must be shrillest. If this were not so, there would be no displacement of anything. on Why is it that if #zese is altered, the sound of the other 36 strings also is spoilt,’ but if on the other hand zese is left alone and one of the other strings altered, the note which 10 is altered* alone is spoilt?> Is it because for all strings ‘being in tune’ means standing in a certain relation to mese, and the tension’ of each is already determined by mese? If, therefore, that which is the cause of their being in tune and which holds them together is taken away, their proper relationship appears to be no longer maintained. But if one string is out of tune but sese is not altered, naturally the defect lies in that string only ;* for all the others are in tune. Cor Why is it that, though height in a voice is in accordance 37 with smallness and lowness in accordance with largeness (for a low note is slow owing to its largeness, and a high note quick owing to its smallness), yet more effort is required to sing a high than a low note, and few can sing the top notes, and the ‘ Orthian songs’ ° and high music are hard to sing owing to the strain which they involve? Yet it requires less effort to set in motion that which is small than that which is large, and this ought to be true also of the air. Is it chapter belongs to another problem. Reinach and Eicbtal’s sug- gested statement of the problem has been adopted in the translation : dua (rip hovy dvd péoov d€urarn 3 i) Ott) mavrds KX. 7 Ep, 8993513. * Placing a comma after dopa. * Reading with Stark $éecpopevac. * Reading with Sylburg (7) kvnOecioa. ° Reading with Stark @@eciperar. The problem is the same as that of chapter 20. * Omitting the comma after the first dmdcas and 6¢ after 16, and deleting the second drdcats. 7 Reading rdovs for rdéts (so also Ruelle). ®* Reading ékAetrer pdvov with Bojesen. * Reading of véuor (oi) 8pOo1. Orthian songs were of a stirring, martial kind. 2 ° BOOK XIX. 37 920° because the possession! of a naturally high voice and the singing of high notes are not the same thing, but naturally high voices are always due to weakness because of the inability to set more than a little air in motion, and the little air thus set in motion is carried quickly along? But height 2s of note in singing is a sign of strength; for that which is carried violently along is carried swiftly.2 Hence persons in robust health*® can sing high. And it requires an effort to sing the high notes, but the low notes are easier.‘ 38 Why do all men delight in rhythm and melody and concords in general? Is it because we naturally rejoice in natural movements?® This is shown by the fact that 30 children rejoice in them as soon as they are born. Now we delight in the various types of melody for their moral character,’ but we delight in rhythm because it contains a familiar and ordered number and moves in a regular manner; for ordered movement is naturally more akin to us than disordered, and is therefore more in accordance 3; with nature. This is shown by the fact that by working and eating and drinking in an ordered manner we preserve and improve our nature and strength, whereas if we do these things irregularly we destroy and derange our nature ; for diseases are disturbances of the natural order’ of the g21? body. Thirdly, we delight in concord because it is the mingling of contraries which stand in proportion to one another. Proportion, then, is order, which, as we have said,? is naturally pleasant. Now that which is mingled is always more pleasant than that which is unmingled, especially if, being perceived by the senses, it contains equally the force of both extremes; and in a concord the 5 proportion has this characteristic.” : Reading (ro) bEvpwvor. } 2 Omitting 6:6 7d o€b Surdpews onpetoy as a repetition from the preceding line. 3 Reading evexrixol (W. D.R.). 4 xdrw is clearly due toa gloss on ra Bapéa and has displaced another word. For the above translation paov (Jan) has been read. Cp. Pol. viii. 13407 3, 4. Reading 70s with most editors. Omitting od with most editors. 8 g20) 33, 34. Reading divayuw (éyn* rotro 8°) exer (W.D.R.). ota en g21* PROBLEMATA Why is ‘antiphony’! more pleasant than ‘ homophony ’? 39 Is it because? ‘antiphony’ is concord in the octave? For ‘antiphony’ is produced by young boys* and men whose 10 VOices are separated in pitch as wefe is from hyfate. Now any concord is more pleasing than a simple note for the reasons already stated,* and of concords that in the octave is the most pleasing; whereas ‘ homophony ’ produces only a simple sound. ‘Magadizing’® is in the concord of the octave, because, just as in verses the syllables stand to one 1s another in the proportion of equal to equal, or two to one, or some other proportion, so too the sounds in a concord stand in a proportion of movement to one another. In the other concords the termination of one of the two notes is incomplete since it coincides with the end of only a half of the other ;° and so they are not equal in force,’ and being unequal they make a different impression* on the sense- a0 perception, as happens in a chorus® when at the conclusion some are singing louder than others.’ Furthermore, ZyZate happens to have the same conclusions to the periods in its sounds as zeze,'! for the second stroke which zefe makes upon the air is A2yfate. As, then, these notes, though as they do not do the same thing, terminate together, the result is that they carry out one common task, like those who are playing a stringed accompaniment to a song; for ' Reading avripevov with Bojesen and most editors, following T. G.’s version. For the meaning ofthe terms ‘ Antiphony’ and ‘ Homophony’ see note on 918? 30. ? Reading 4 (671) with most editors. 3 Omitting «cal inserted in the Teubner text before véor. * i.e. in chapter 38. > See note on 91941. Some editors, following T.G., hold that a new problem begins at this point and read (d:t ri) payaditovew ev rj dia macav ovppewria; i) Core) xtX. The rest of the chapter, however, seems to follow naturally on the remarks about the superiority of the concord in the octave. * i.e. in the fifth, the length of the two notes being as 3:2, the slower terminates when one and a half beats of the faster have taken place; in the fourth, the length of the two notes being as 4: 3, the second beat of the faster terminates when one and a half beats of the slower have taken place. T Placing a comma instead of a full-stop after eaiv. § Reading duahopor with Reinach and Eichtal. ® Deleting the comma after yopois. Reading dAor (iAAwr) Hbeyyopévay or AXots (adXav) Pbeyyopevoes (Wo DERG: 1 Reading ovpBaiver (rH vedty) rhv attrhy from T.G.’s version. BOOK XIX. 39 g21* these, though they do not play the same other notes as the singer, yet, if they finish on the same note, give more pleasure by their conclusion than they give pain by the differences which occur earlier in the piece, because after diversity the unity due to the accord in the octave is very pleasing.! Now ‘ magadizing’ is made up of contrary notes,? and for this reason it is carried out in the accord in the 3° octave. 40 Whydo men take greater pleasure in listening to those who are singing tunes which they already know than if they do not know them?® Is it because it is more obvious that the singer is as it were achieving his aim when they recognize what is being sung, and when they recognize it 35 the contemplation of it is pleasant? Or is it because the listener is in sympathy with one who sings what he himself knows? For he sings with him; and every one enjoys singing when he is under no compulsion to sing. 4) Why area double fifth* and a double fourth not concor- g21° dant, whereas a double octave is?° Is it because a fifth is in the ratio of 3 to 2, and a fourth in that of 4 to 3? Now in a series of three numbers ° in a ratio of 3 to 27 or 4 to 3, the two extreme numbers will have no ratio to one another; ; for neither will they be in a superparticular ratio® nor will one be a multiple of the other. But, since the octave is in a ratio of 2 to1,° if it be doubled the extreme numbers would be in a fourfold ratio. So, since a concord is a compound of sounds which are in a proper ratio!® to one another, and sounds which are at an interval of two octaves 10 from one another are in a ratio to one another (while double fourths and double fifths are not), the sounds con- 1 Reading ro ex diahdper 7d kowvov Hdtorov KTA. 2 j,e. high and low. 3 Cp. above, chapter 5. ' For 60 d€e.@v see note on 920% 24. 5 This chapter is a longer version of chapter 34. 6 Reading with the MSS. rp.av. i . 7 This phrase clearly means a series consisting of 2, 2 x $, x (8)”. 8 For the meaning of émipdpios see note on 920° 26, ® Putting a comma instead of a full-stop after Asyo. 10 Reading edAdyws with Stumpf; cp. de Sensu, 439” 31 ff. 645-25 P gai” PROBLEMATA stituting the double octave would give a concord (while the others would not) for the reasons given above. Why is it that, if one strikes ze/e and then stops it 42 1s down, Aypate seems to respond?! Js it because zeé/e, as it ceases and dies down, becomes /Aypfate? (This can be illustrated by the fact that it is possible to sing #e¢e from hypate ; for the similarity can be taken from yfacze as being a response to zeze.2) And since an echo is a response to a note®, and when wefe ceases a sound‘ is set in motion 20 which is the same as the note of AyZaze, it is only natural owing to the similarity that ee should seem to set hyfate in motion. For we know that zefe is not’ ‘in motion, because it is stopped down, and seeing that yfaze itself is not stopped down and hearing its note we think that it is hypate which is giving forth a sound. (This kind of 25 illusion is quite common, where we cannot perceive the exact truth either by reasoning or by the senses.) Again, it would be nothing extraordinary if, after zeze is struck when it is very tightly stretched, the bridge were set in motion ; and it would not be strange if, when the bridge moved, all the strings were set in motion with it and made 30a sound. Now the sound of zefe is alien to the other notes both in its end and in its beginning, but is the same as Aypate in its end.° This having been added to the move- ment of Ayfate itself, it would not be strange that the sound should seem to be entirely that of Zypaze; and it will be louder than the combined sound of the other notes, because the latter, being as it were impelled by zeve, 35 give only a soft sound, whereas eZe, being the most violent of notes, sounds with its full force; and so naturally its second sound would be louder than that of the others, especially if only a slight movement has taken place in them.’ } Cp. chapter 24. : Reading os yap ovons dvr@dijs (rijs) vedrTns (Ww. D. R.). : Reading emet d€ kai nx avr@dy ris ear [an eotw] havijs, Kal ris veitns Anyovans Hxos (W. D.R.). * Reading xvetra for xivet with Vollgraff. ° Reading with Jan iopev Cért) od. Ei@puoz2is2ss 7 Reading with Sylburg ddd\ws re Kat Bpaxelas kujoews airais yeyern- pevns. T.G, Clearly renders dAXos Te Kal. BOOK XIX. 43 922° 43 Why do we listen! with greater pleasure to a solo sung 922" to a flute than to one sung to a lyre?? Is it because anything becomes still more pleasant when mingled with what is more pleasant ?° Now the flute is more pleasant than the lyre, so that singing would be more pleasant when it mingles with the flute than with the lyre. Further,‘ that which is mingled is more pleasant than that which is un- mingled, if there is a simultaneous perception of both the 5 elements. For wine is pleasanter than ‘oxymel’,* because natural mixtures are more thoroughly mingled than those which we make ourselves. For there is also wine which is mingled of bitter and sweet savours, as is shown by the so-called vinous pomegranates, Singing, then, and the flute mingle with one another owing to their similarity, for they are both produced by breath. But the sound of the lyre, since it is not produced by breath (which is what makes the sound of the flute less noticeable),® ‘mingles less well with the voice and, causing a contrast in the percep- tion, has a less sweetening effect, as has been said of savours. Furthermore, the flute by its own sound and by its likeness to the voice covers up many of the mistakes of the singer; but the sounds of the lyre, which are isolated and mingle less well with the voice, since they are themselves observed, and exist, on their own account,’ show up the mistakes of the singing as well, providing as it were a standard for criticizing it. And when there are many mistakes in the « singing, the combined effect of the singing and the accom- 30 paniment must necessarily be worse. = ° = or 44 Why is mese* (‘the middle note’) so called, though there is no middle of eight notes?’ Is it because in the 1 Reading with X® pov@dias axovopev edy Krh. a 2 The sense of the solution requires } (éav zpos) Avpav. This is not the same problem as that of chapter 9, although in the MSS. the questions are identical. ihe oath 3 Reading ray r@ ndiove pryOev O.ov Ere €oriv, é . ais 4 Putting a full-stop after «iy and reading with Bojesen ér: for éemet. ® An artificial drink made of honey and vinegar. ‘ : 6 So that it mingles better with the voice. Reading 7 (Egger for i) Arrov alaOnrov 6 TOY avhav. Reading avrot (W.D.R.) for abrots. 8 Omitting ray pev dxrm: the MSS. have rév pev entra, which gives just the wrong sense and is due to a false gloss. 9 This problem is a longer version of chapter 25. 1 922° PROBLEMATA old days the scales had seven notes,' and seven has a middle? Again, since of the points which fall between two extremes the middle alone forms a kind of starting- point,? that which lies between the points which verge towards either end in an extended space, being also a starting-point “—zhaz¢ will be the true middle. And since nete and /hypate are the extremes of the scale* and the other sounds lie between them, of which the one which is called szese alone is the beginning of the second tetra- chord, the name zese (‘middle note’) is amply justified ; for of the points lying between certain extremities, as has been shown, the middle alone forms a beginning. or small one?" Is it because they look more to one man, their leader, and dance’ more slowly, and so more easily achieve unity? For mistakes occur more frequently in quick singing. Now a large chorus attends to its leader, and no one by differing from the rest would render himself conspicuous by making himself heard above the rest: in a small chorus, on the other hand, individuals can make themselves more conspicuous; they, therefore, vie with one another instead of looking to their leader. or Why does a large chorus keep the rhythm better than a 45 Why do most men sing high when they sing out of 46 922° tune?* Is it because it is easier to sing a high note than a low note? They have at all events a tendency to sing high and so make mistakes in what they sing. Why did the ancients, when they made the scales consist 47 of seven strings, leave in Lypate but not zefe?® Or should 5 we say that they omitted not zefe but what is now called Paramese and the interval of a tone?’ They treated 1 See note on 918® 14. CRP Ays. 202725. * Reading ére emetd) . . . dpyn tis eorey, [eat] (rd) trav Cem) Oirepor » +» Otarrrpare (MSS.) ava pecor, by dpyn, rotr’ éorar pécor (W. D. R.). Very possibly, however, évriw .. . dpyy is a gloss. Reading pey for péoov with Usener. i.e. in the old scale of seven notes. This is a longer version of the problem of chapter 22. Reading opxovvra as suggested by E. Graf in 919 38. Cp. above, chapter 26. Cp. above, chapter 7 and the note on 918 14. i.e. the disjunctive. a i] BOOK XIX. 47 922” meseé,' then, as the lower note of the upper ‘pycnon’;? whence came the name mese, because ® it was the end of the upper tetrachord and the beginning of the lower, and was in pitch in an intermediate relation between the extreme notes. 48 Why do the choruses in tragedy not sing either in the 10 Hypodorian or in the Hypophrygian mode? Is it because these modes have very little of the kind of tune * which is specially necessary to a chorus?) Now the Hypophrygian mode has a character of action (hence in the Geryone® the march-forth and arming are composed in this mode) ; and the Hypodorian is magnificent and steadfast, and so is the 15 most suitable of all the modes to accompaniment by the lyre. Now both these are unsuited to the chorus and more proper for the characters on the stage; for the latter imitate heroes, and among the ancients the leaders alone were heroes, and the people, of whom the chorus consists, were mere men. Soa woeful and quiet character and type 20 of music are suited to the chorus, for they are more human. These characteristics belong to the other modes, but least to the Phrygian ° among them—for it is exciting and orgi- astic—and most to the Mixolydian.?_ In accordance with this mode, then, we adopt a passive attitude, and the weak are more passive than the strong; and so this mode is appro- priate to choruses. When we use the Hypodorian and Hypophrygian modes, on the other hand, we are active, and action is not fitting for choruses; for the chorus is in » 5 1 Reading with Jan peon r7 €oxary. 2 *Pycnon’ is a term used for the range covered by the three lower notes of the tetrachord when that range is less than that which is included between the two upper notes ; cp. Aristoxenus, 1. 24. 3 Reading with Bojesen mpoonyspevoray Fa ére and putting a full-stop at the end of the sentence. * Reading dre (rd) pédos. 5 A tragedy attributed to Nicomachus (Nauck’, p. 752). © The MSS. here read trodpvyori, which cannot stand here, since the Hypophrygian mode has already been shown to have the character of action (mpaxtixés), which Aristotle in the Pod/tics (1341” 34) con- trasts with éevOovoiautixés. The Phrygian mode is characterized in the Politics (1342 3) as dpyiaorixis and is therefore appropriate here. 7 Inserting with Bojesen pdadiora b¢ 1) pefoAviiort from T.G. The Mixolydian mode was mournful (Po/. 1340% 42 ff.) and is therefore appropriate here. 922” PROBLEMATA attendance and takes no active part, for it simply shows goodwill towards those with whom it is present. Why is it that of the sounds which form a consonance 49 the lower is more suited to melody?! Is it because melody is in its own nature soft and tranquil, but becomes harsh and full of movement by the admixture of rhythm ? Now since the low note is soft and tranquil, and the high note full of movement, of the notes which maintain the same melody the lower would rather be more melodious ? in the same melody ; for melody in itself,? as has been shown, is soft. 3 ° 35 Why is it that the sounds produced from two jars of the 50 same size and quality, one empty and the other half-full, give an accord in the octave? Is it because the sound * produced from the half-full jar is double® that produced from the empty jar? This surely is just what happens in the pipes. For the quicker the movement, the higher 923% seems the note, and in larger spaces the air collects more slowly, and in double the space in double the time, and proportionately in the other spaces. A wine-skin too which is double the size of another, gives an accord in the octave with one which is half its size. ? Reading with Bojesen pedtkorepov; cp. 918% 37. The meaning seems to be that where there is an independent accompaniment, it should be above, not below, the singing voice. This appears to have been the Greek practice. ? Reading pedtkorepos; see last note. $ Reading atré with C3. * Omitting «ai after yiverac with Bojesen. » SurAacia here means ‘twice as-rapid’. 923° BOOK XX PROBLEMS CONCERNING SHRUBS AND 5 VEGETABLES I Why is it that celery can endure salt water, but the leek cannot? Is it because the roots of the latter are weak, but those of the former are strong, and that which is stronger is less liable to be affected ? 2 What is the reason of the saying: Mint should neither be eaten nor planted in season of warfare?! Is it because mint has a cooling effect upon the body, as is shown by the corruption which it causes in the semen? This is opposed to courage and spirit, being the same in kind. 3 Why is it that some plants, though they have blossom, have no fruit, such as the cucumber and the pumpkin and the pomegranates Or have they fruit, the blossom being the fruit? For example the part which blossoms is a fruit- 15 case, and the cucumber is a fruit-case. m4 oO 4 Why is it that some plants are edible only after they have been boiled, while others can be eaten raw? Do the juices of such plants as are not at first edible become sweeter when the plants have been warmed by heat, whilst in others the juices are originally sweet, and these can be eaten raw ? 5 Why is it that some plants are boiled, others roasted? Is it because the moister plants do not require so much moistening,? while the drier plants must not be further dried? Now anything which is boiled becomes moister 1 See Leutsch, Paroemiogr. il. 530. : f ? 2 Reading od rocotrov (vypavOjva). The Latin version of T.G. renders ‘an quod humidiora non eatenus humectari.. . oportet’. 923° 6 25 30 35 923° ab PROBLEMATA and softer, and that which is less moist becomes dry if exposed to the fire. Why are some plants edible and others inedible? Is it 6 owing to their juices? For plants which in their raw state have unconcocted juices and, when heated, do not undergo change, are inedible. Now those of which the juice is edible but somewhat strong are used as condiments; for plants which have a strong savour in a small compass serve toflavour those of which the savour is distributed over a large bulk. Why is it that some plants live only until they have 7 produced seeds and having borne seeds dry up— grass, for instance, and the so-called herbs—while others do not, but bear seeds time after time? And of those which live only until they have produced seed why are the majority annuals, while horse-parsley produces its fruit in the second year and having done so dries up? Is it because all things flourish until their seed! reaches its prime (for man too continues to grow until the age of thirty, sometimes in height? and sometimes in bulk), but when they can no longer produce seed, as in the case of man, they begin to dry up and grow old—in some cases slowly and in proportion?* The reason why some forms of life are long-lived and others short- lived is to be the subject of another treatise. But since the perfection of the seed is the limit in all cases, it neces- sarily follows that the short-lived bear fruit only once or only a few times, and the long-lived many times; so that the weakest bear® only once and so necessarily dry up; and those of them which can bear seed in a year are annuals, whilst others, like horse-parsley, do so in the second year, both plants and trees alike." Reading kai for kara (Platt). Some MSS. read kal card. Reading prjxee (Bonitz) for mye. i.€. in proportion to their length of life. Apparently a direct reference to de Longit. et Brev. Vitae 464» 109 ff. Reading éveyxety (Bonitz) for evéyxor. The Latin version here translates a longer text: ‘alia postero ut equapium. (uae vero praevalida surgunt, haec annis plusculis post fructificare incipiunt, diuque vitam agere possunt, fructificareque Saepius, ut arbores’. This gives a much fuller sense and the Greek a A WO TD BOOK XX. 8 923° 8 Why is it that if one digs down to the roots of celery 10 and surrounds them with barley-husks, and puts earth over these and then waters the plants, the roots become very large?! Is it because the barley-husks, being hot and spongy, hold the nourishment in a mass so that it does not rise upwards, but, being hot, causes concoction, and so considerable growth takes place ? 15 9 Why is it that if one buries gourds or pumpkins in the ground when they are still small, they become large ?? Is it because the wind and the sun dry everything up and prevent growth, and make everything smaller in bulk but closer in texture? (As can be seen in the difference between trees growing in windy and sunny ® localities and 20 those in hollow and moist places, the latter being large and spongy in texture, the former small and dense.) Now the burying of things in the earth is the contrary of this and produces a contrary result. (A similar difference occurs in fruits placed in vessels; if pumpkins are placed in hollow fennel-stalks or boxes, and pomegranates or apples 25 in earthenware jars, the apples become large and spongy,* but the pumpkins become small and hard because they grow against a resisting surface.) The reason then is that the nutriment is increased, because it is not dispersed by the wind or dried up; for the covering of earth prevents it from being thus affected. 10 Why are the seeds of pungent plants more pungent than 30 the roots and the leaves? Is it because everything is derived text as we have it probably has a lacuna between 7 burépo ere and dorep ra Oevdpa. 1 The source of this problem is Theophrastus, de Cans. Plant. v. 6, 3. ? Cp. Theophrastus, of. cit. v. 6, 4. 5 Reading eihwdeor for Awdeow ; Theophrastus has evethos. ‘ The text here is unsatisfactory and perhaps beyond emendation. For the above translation the following text bas been read: ra pev peyddra copa dé, of d€ ptxpol oreppol dé, avEavopevor eis avtiturov. The omission of px before eis dvrituroy may be justified since (1) the negative should be ov not pi, and (2) wij gives no sense. The phrase eis avriruroy seems to imply a reference to the well-known practice in ancient and modern times of enclosing growing gourds in some narrow receptacle in order to shape them for use as receptacles for liquid (cp. fheophrastus, A/7s¢. Plant. vii. 3, 5). The contrast then is between gourds placed in afennel-stalk or some other narrow receptacle and apples stored in a large earthenware vessel. 923° PROBLEMATA from the seed and distributed to the other parts from it, as it were pre-existing in it, as some contend, including the juices and odours, since the odours always become distinc- tive as soon as the seeds are formed? If, therefore, the 33 pungency in the rest of the plant is derived from the seed, it is only natural that it should be present in the greatest degree in the seed." Why are thin radishes more pungent? Is it because the II larger radishes are more concocted owing to the lapse of time ? 924* Why is it that the caper-plant will not grow easily in 12 tilled ground “for the experiment has often been made of transplanting the roots or sowing the seed (for in some places it is more profitable than roses)—but grows best among the tombs because the ground is most untrodden? As regards this and similar questions the principle must be accepted that all things do not come into being and grow from the same matter, but some things originally come into being and grow from the corruption of other things —for instance lice and the hair on the body when its ro nutriment is corrupted and when the body is itself* in a state of deterioration. As therefore in the body cer- tain products are engendered from the excrement of nutriment (which means that concoction is incomplete), and since, when nature cannot prevail over the excre- ment, the commonest excretions are absorbed into the bladder and bowels, while from others living organisms are engendered * (and so these attain the greatest growth in old age and disease ®), so in the earth some products are engendered and grow from the concoction of nutriment, others from excretions and matter that is in a condition which is the opposite of concoction. Now tillage concocts on =~ mn Reading airé (= ré oméppart) for adrd. Cp. Theophrastus, of. cé¢. i. 3, 63 iii. 2, 1. Reading atrod for dei rd, Richards reads rov for 16. This passage is directly referred to in Meteor. iii. 381” 9-13, where the question of the formation of living organisms in the body is said to be treated ¢v rois €répors, which Alexander Aphrodisiensis interprets as ev Trois mpoBAnpact. ° Because then nature has the least power of resistance. - © pp BOOK XX. 12 924 the nutriment and makes it productive, and from this the cultivated fruits are formed. The products, therefore, of this cultivation are called cultivated because they are bene- fited by art, undergoing as it were a kind of training. Plants, on the other hand, which cannot be so benefited 2 or are formed from an opposite condition, are ‘wild’ and will not grow in a highly tilled soil, For tillage spoils them by trying to train them; for they are engendered from corruption. It is to this class that the caper-plant belongs. 13. Why is it that, when radishes are in their prime in the winter, if one cuts off the leaves and heaps earth round 2; them and treads it in so as to keep out the water, they grow to an extraordinary size in the summer?! Is it because the heaping up of the earth round them secures them from becoming corrupted by preventing the water from rotting them, and the nutriment, which the plant used to send into the shoot, enters into the radish, so that it must either itself increase in size or send out lateral shoots and grow other roots, as do onions? For onions, if they are not pulled up each year but are left in the ground during the winter, become multiplied. Now onions are among the plants which send out shoots laterally ; but the radish does not do so, and must therefore increase in bulk, because it absorbs all the nutriment. 35 (SS) ° 14. Why isit that ifone plants pumpkins or gourds near a well and, when they are ripe, lets them down into the well and covers them over, they remain green for a whole year?’ Is it because the vapour from the water cools them and prevents them from drying up and keeps them in good condition, and the covering of them up fosters the breath which: has formed inthem? Their conservation is due to the fact that 924 they still receive nutriment, because their roots are left undis- turbed ; for even if one removes the shoots, when they have borne fruit, and after cutting them away heaps earth round the roots and treads it down, the plant will produce early 5 1 The source of this problem is Theophrastus, de Cass. Plant, v.6, 2-3. 2 The source of this problem is Theophrastus, of. cit. v. 6, 5-6. b 924 10 LE) 20 » or PROBLEMATA pumpkins, because the roots can survive; for the pumpkin- plant! is not a biennial. Plants treated in this way * will bear fruit more quickly than seedlings, because the root, the most important part of their organism, is already present in their growth, whereas in seedlings the roots must grow first. Furthermore, the heaping of earth round the root engenders warmth, so that it is preserved and sends up a shoot more quickly. So too if one sows gourd- seeds during the winter in small wicker baskets and waters them with hot water and carries them out into the sun and places them by the fire, very early gourds will be produced if one plants them out in the ground, as they are, in the baskets, when the proper season arrives. Why are plants watered at dawn or at night or in the 15 evening? Is it in order that the sun may not consume the water? Or is it because, when the water is warm, it corrupts the plants which are watered with it? Why is it that sweet-smelling seeds and plants promote 16 the flow of urine?* Is it because they contain heat and are easily concocted, and such things have this effect? For the heat which is in them causes quick digestion,’ and their odour has no corporeal existence; for evil-smelling plants, such as garlic, owing to their heat, promote the flow of urine, but their wasting effect is a more marked character- istic. But sweet-smelling seeds contain heat, because odour is entirely engendered by the presence of some heat; but evil-smelling things are unconcocted. Now anything which is to promote the flow of urine must be not only hot but also easily concocted, so that it may accompany the liquids in their downward course and effect their digestion. Why is it that vegetables which are produced from older 17 seeds (for example, two or three years old) produce more 1 Reading eore with C8. * Reading obra for atroi. ° éy 3 is clearly corrupt, as it has no antecedent. It is clear, how- ever, that the right reading is ére 62 1) meptougis ddéav move, Sore coterbar cat Oarrov ameévat BNaotdv, Cp. Theophrastus, LA Cente OGan) mreploagis dd€av mupexovoa Oarror dnevar rotet Bacror, _ * This problem occurs also at xii. 12, and is partly identical with i. 48. ° Cp. 865%21 and note. BOOK XX. 17 924 stalk than those grown from fresh seeds?! Is it because, just as in animals that which is at its prime produces 3° semen most readily, so too very old seeds lose their vigour by evaporation, and those which are produced from fresh seeds are too weak because they still contain excrement which is alien to them, but those which are of moderate age are strongest, because the moisture has left them, and so they produce seed more readily? And the production of seed is the same process as the production of stalk, since the seed comes from the stalk. 18 Why does rue grow best and most abundantly if it is 35 grafted on to a fig-tree?* Now it is grafted inside the bark and plastered with clay. Is it because the roots of the rue require heat and warmth (and this is why they are benefited by being surrounded with ashes), and the fig-tree contains heat? That this is so is shown by the fact that its sap is 925% the most pungent of all and by the amount of smoke which it produces when burnt.” It therefore possesses the same kind of heat and moisture as ashes, so that if ashes benefit rue, it must necessarily flourish greatly when grafted on the fig-tree, since, whereas ashes give off no fluid, the flow of liquid from the fig-tree is continuous, its moisture being never exhausted. 5 19. Why do some plants always produce empty stalks? Are they among those plants which have to produce some- thing other than stalk ?*# 20 Why is it that in Attica, while all other fruits are very sweet, thyme is very bitter, yet thyme is a kind of fruit? Is it because the soil there is thin and dry,’ so that the ro plants which grow there do not contain much moisture ? 1 Cp. Theophrastus, of. c7t. iv. 3, 5-6. 2 Cp. Theophrastus, of. cit. v. 6, 10. 3 Cp. Theophrastus, A’zs¢. Plant. v. 9, 5. 4 The Latin version of T.G. apparently translates a different text here, since it renders: ‘an illis quarum natura imbecillior est, has rarum inanemque emittere caulem necesse est ?’ 3 ’ There is clearly alacuna here. The margin of X* notes tows Metre’ 4 bre dypos exeivos Nerds re Kai Enpds €ort. The Latin version of T. G,. also translates this reading, and it has been adopted in the above translation. 925° PROBLEMATA In plants, thea, which are naturally sweet, owing to the moderate quantity of moisture which they contain, when the sun has absorbed the greater part of it the remainder is easily concocted ; for it is difficult for a large amount, but easy for a moderate amount, to be ripened. Fruits, there- fore, which are naturally sweet become more so; but in those which are naturally dry and not sweet, the natural moisture fails, because it is scanty, and is very far from being sweet. For the sun absorbs the sweetest and lightest part of it; and these fruits have no superfluous moisture, as have other fruits. or Why do pennyroyal and narcissi and onions bloom if 21 20 hung up at the time of the summer solstice? Is it because there is unconcocted nutriment in them, which! in winter does not become concocted owing to the cold, but at the summer solstice owing to the season becomes concocted, and so the growth takes place? This growth, however, because there is no influx of moisture, quickly dies down; for if they have not some source of nutriment or influx of 25 moisture, they dry up. A similar phenomenon occurs in Scythia, where, owing to the presence of abundant snow, the corn remains a long time in the earth and then suddenly shoots up. Why does the onion alone make the eyes smart to such 22 an excessive ,degree (hence it is said to derive its name because it makes one cover up the pupil),? whercas marjoram and other pungent plants do not have this effect? For the 30 Nasturtium, though it is more stinging, does not cause tears to the same extent if placed near the eyes, whereas the onion has this effect both when so placed and when eaten. Is it because many differences attach to each of the pungent plants, which give each its peculiar property ? The nasturtium then, because it is hotter, is so dry that it 35 prevails over the liquefaction which it causes; for it causes tears when it is eaten, but it does not cause tears when * Reading 4 for # in L. 21° : ne kpoupvoy is popularly derived from xdpy, the pupil, and pve, to close. BOOK XX. 22 925° placed near the eyes, because it does not give off any thin vapour, being too dry and hot to do so. But marjoram and such warm plants are dry, though only slightly so; and 925° that which is to cause tears must be stinging and moist and viscous. This is why olive oil causes tears, though its sting is weak ; for it penetrates owing to its viscosity and tenuity and causes pain, and the pain causes melting. Now the 5 onion has such properties that its moisture and the vapour which it gives off are hot and tenuous and viscous; and so, when it is placed near the eye, it causes tears, because the vapour which it gives off is of such a character and carries with it a thin moisture ; and, when it is eaten, the exhalation penetrates and produces the same effect.' Garlic, on the other hand, is hot and pungent and contains moisture, but is not viscous; and so does not cause tears. i) fe) 23. Why isit that myrtle-berries which have been compressed in the hand seem to us sweeter than those which have not been so compressed? Is it for the same reason as makes dried grapes sweeter than fresh clusters and undried grapes? For dried grapes are, it appears, flavoured by the juice, which is naturally sweet (for they are even externally satu- rated by it), but the grapes which are still in the cluster are not so flavoured. So too myrtle-berries, which are naturally sweet and have their sweetness within, like grapes when they are compressed, become saturated by the sweetness which is within them and are clearly sweeter externally. u b ° 24 Why is it that, the smaller myrtle-berries are, the more they tend to have no stones, and the same is true also of dates and clusters of grapes, in which” the small grapes have no stones at all or only smaller stones? Is it because, 25 being less perfect, they have less distinctly formed stones ? For the purpose of the stone is to contain the seed. Now the berries are smaller, because they are mere offshoots and imperfect, and they are less sweet than those which have 1 There is clearly a lacuna here. Sylb. supplies ravré roveiv dévarat from T.G. 2 Omitting 5’. 925” PROBLEMATA proper stones; for they are less concocted, and concoction is a process which produces perfection. 30 Why is it that in some fruits the parts which are near the 25 root are more bitter (for example in the cucumber), but in others the parts towards the upper extremity (for example in acorns)? Is it because in the former the nutriment in that part is unconcocted, because there is a continual influx along the root; while the latter are naturally dry, and so, when the sweetness is drawn off from the extremity and 35 has become concocted, they are henceforward dry and the bitterness is left behind like salt? Now as anything becomes dry, it becomes more bitter, just as olives and acorns become bitter as they grow old. 9262 Why do some plants sprout when they are not in the 26 earth, but either cut off or placed in store, lily-stalks, for example, and garlic and onions?! Is it because they all have nutriment within themselves and not in any definite place outside the plant?” [It is therefore their superabun- 5 dance of nutriment which makes them sprout, as is clear from the fact that squills and purse-tassels do the same.] Now each of them grows not merely because it contains nutriment, but only when that nutriment is concocted and distributed ; it therefore contains nutriment before, but it only grows when the season comes at which this process takes place owing to the concoction caused by the season," as happens also to crocodiles’ eggs. The growth, however, 10 iS not continuous, because there is no influx of more nutriment. Why is it that garlic and onions grow better according 97 as they are drier when planted, whilst other plants grow worse under such conditions? Is it because all plants of this kind are exceedingly full of moisture? If, then, they are planted in this condition, they enjoy equable conditions. ? See below, chapter 28. 2 AY Cae . . ” - ovGev curdv is obviously corrupt. For the above translation ¢fwder Tov purov has been read. The two following sentences 9 mepovela.. . movovolv, Which occur again in chapter 28, are omitted by the best MSS. * Reading merrovons (tis) Spas. BOOK XX. 27 9267 A further reason is that they are less likely to rot if they are dried before being planted. 15 28 Why is it that garlic and onions alone among plants sprout when they are stored away?! Is it because they are full of moisture and nutriment? It is abundance of nutriment, then, which makes them sprout, as is clear from the fact that squills and purse-tassels do the same. But they grow only when the proper season for each of 20 them comes. 29 Why is it that plants which are watered with cold water are sweeter than those watered with warm water? Is it because the warm water when it becomes enclosed in the plant is saltier (just as that which is saltier is hotter, and that which is sweet is the opposite, that is, in a sense, cold) ? Now the nutriment of vegetables is liquid, and it is this a5 which gives them their juices. 30 Why is it that garlic has a stronger odour when it has run to stalk than when it is young? Is it because, when it is young, there is still a large quantity of alien moisture in it which deprives it of its strength? When, however, the plant has ripened, the alien moisture having been already excreted, it then has its own proper odour; and this is 30 naturally pungent.” Similarly, all other fruits when they are young are more watery. This is the reason why young onions are less pungent. 31 Why is it that, if myrtle-branches are not embalmed,’ the berries rather than the leaves drop off, whereas, if they are embalmed with seaweed, the leaves drop off but the berries 35 do not? Is it what naturally happens if the branches are not embalmed, for the berries naturally drop off when they become ripe? This does not occur when the branches are stored away, but the moisture in the seaweed only prevents the moisture in the berries from undergoing change. The leaves, on the other hand, drop off as the branches become 926° dry, and the seaweed, which is salty, has a drying effect 1 Cp. above, chapter 26. wr 2 Sppeia is omitted by a misprint after pug in Bekker’s text. 5 Apparently for use as chaplets, 645-25 Q 926° PROBLEMATA upon them. The leaves thus undergo different processes when they remain on the tree and when they are stored away. Why do melons! grow best in marshy plains which are 32 5 humid, for example, round Orchomenus and in Egypt, which appears to be a well-watered country? Now marshy districts are full of water and melons themselves are somewhat moist; and this is why those grown in gardens are poor. Is it because they have to be planted deep 10 owing to the hardness of the ground? For clayey, flat ground becomes very hard, and plants grow best which are deeply planted. Or is it because the ground must be dry, because the plant itself is naturally moist? For thus being pulled in opposite directions it will attain the mean. Now ground which is somewhat marshy but deep contains nutriment owing to the depth of the soil and the locality, '5 but not in an excessive quantity, because the ground dries up again. ‘Why is it that rue and certain unguents give the per- 33 spiration an evil odour?” Is it because things which have a heavy and pungent odour, mixing with the excretory fluids, make the odour of these still more unpleasant ? 20. Why is rue said to be a remedy against the evil eye?* 34 Is it because men think they are victims of the evil eye when they eat greedily or when they expect some enmity and are suspicious of the food set before them? For instance, when they take anything for themselves from the same course, they offer some one else a portion, adding the 25 words, ‘so that you may not cast the evil eye upon me’. All therefore will take with alarm of what is offered them, whether liquid or solid, of those foods, the constriction or vomiting forth of which causes the solids to be carried up- wards and ejected or the flatulence from the liquid to give Reading of oixvor (oi) te eots (Richards). ” Repeated from ii. 13, where see note on 867° 9. * The belief in the evil eye was evidently as widespread in the Mediterranean lands in ancient times as it is to-day ; see Otto Jahn, Berichte d. Sachsischen Gesellschaft, 1855, pp. 28 ff., and A. Michaelis, Moda hai Weish. 19. SNP BOOK XX. 34 926? rise to pain and writhing. Rue, therefore, bein g eaten beforehand, since it is naturally warming, rarefies the organ which receives the food and the whole body, with the result 30 that it drives out! the flatulence” enclosed within it. 35 Why is it that marjoram, being thrown into the must, makes the wine sweet, and two cupfuls are thrown into a jar of wine? Is it because it takes away the elements which cause harshness by absorbing into itself by its dryness 35 the watery and sedimentary parts? That it is these which cause harshness is shown by the fact that wines are less soft if water is added or if they have been allowed to stand a long time on the lees. Also when they make raisin wine,® they expose the grapes for a long time to the sun, which draws out the watery element and concocts the 927° remainder. Now marjoram produces the same result, for it is dry and hot, and so naturally has a lasting effect. 36 Why do black myrtle-trees have thicker foliage than white? Is it because they are a wilder species? That they are so is proved by the fact that they grow in the untilled ; ground‘ and undergo very little modification as a result of cultivation. Now wild plants invariably have denser foliage ; for, because their fruit is less concocted, the nutriment is diverted into the foliage. 1 Reading éEw6eiy: all MSS. read e€w6ev. — 2 The Teubner text misprints mvevpu as revpa. % Reading yAvkty (sc. oivor) for yAukv, see Bonitz, Judex, 157% 17. 4 Reading apyois (Bussemaker) for «ypois. 927° BOOK XXI PROBLEMS CONCERNING BARLEY-MEAL, BARLEY-CAKE, AND THE LIKE Wuy is it that barley-gruel and wheaten-flour become1 whiter if oil is poured on to them, though oil is reddish in colour? Is it because oil naturally foams when it is mixed with liquid, and foaming causes whiteness? Now mixing is carried out by pounding and motion, and is most complete 15 in the case of corporeal substances. This process occurs in foods which are boiled, and so makes them whiter. Why is it that foods made from wheat suit our bodies 2 best and are more nourishing than those made from barley ?? Is it because wheat contains a moderate amount of stickiness, and food ought to have this quality, since it ought to cling ao and adhere to the body, and its stickiness causes it to do so? But barley? is less cohesive, and so cakes in which the barley is well kneaded are more nourishing than those in which it is not kneaded. Why is it that of wheaten-flour that which is ground first 3 is whiter, but of barley-meal that which is ground last? Is it because barley, being dry, breaks into pieces, whereas wheat is soft and crushes? Now in both it is the inner part which is whitest. Ls} we Why do loaves appear whiter when they are cold than 4 when they are hot? Is it somehow for the same reason that stale oil is whiter than fresh? For the cause of the blackness is the water which in both cases is present in ° 3 * Cp. Hippocr., de Diaeta, ii. § 40. * Reading adda (1 KpiO)) Wabuparepov. yAtoypds and yabupds are regularly contrasted (cp. ll. »7 ff.), hence it is impossible for Waupe- tepov to refer to 7 €k rou mupov tpopy, which has already been stated to be yAtoxpdv. The Latin version of T.G. renders hordeum vero rvigidius est, and evidently read 7 xpi6y, though pabupdrepoy is incorrectly translated. * A longer version of this problem occurs in chapter 7. BOOK XXI. 4 9272 larger quantities when they are fresh; but after a time, owing to evaporation, the water remaining near the surface becomes less. Now it is either the passage of time or the heat of the sun which causes evaporation from the oil; and from loayes the heat goes forth as they cool and has entirely departed when they are cold, whereas it is still present when they are warm. 5 Why do loaves which contain no salt weigh heavier than 35 those which are salted, the other ingredients being exactly the same? The contrary would be expected, since salt is added, and salt is heavier than water. Is it because the salt causes drying to take place? This is why things which are preserved with salt remain uncorrupted ; for the moisture in them is taken up and dried up by the salt, and 927° it is the moisture in things that is corrupted by heat. So too in bread the moisture is taken up by the salt and evaporates outside. Stale bread therefore is lighter than hot bread, since it is colder. Now in loaves which do not contain salt this moisture is present in greater quantities 5 and makes them heavier. 6 Why is it that loaves which have become cold, if they are moistened and placed in contact with one another, do not cohere, whereas hot loaves do so? Is it because the cold loaves give off with the vapour the sticky moisture which is in them, and, because this has gone forth, do not cohere (for the water with which they were wetted is too un- !° cohesive); but the hot loaves contain a certain amount of stickiness, and so, when they are moistened and the vapour comes forth, the heat, owing to its rarity, is given off, but the sticky matter, which comes out with it and mingles with the moisture, causes the loaves to adhere together ?! 7 Why is it that of wheaten-flour that which is ground first ? * is whiter, but of barley-meal that which is ground last? Is it because barley, being dry, breaks into pieces, and this happens most when it is ground for a very long time, but 1 Reading mpooéxerOat Eavtois (so too Bussemaker). 2 Reading ra mpara for ra dddura, cp. chapter 3 (*23) which is a shorter version of the same problem. 927” 20 25 35 928° 5 PROBLEMATA the flour which is inside the wheat is soft and fine and is crushed out at first ? Now in both cases it is the inner part which is whitest. Why is it that barley-cake becomes more indigestible the 8 more it is kneaded, whereas wheaten-bread becomes easier to digest? Is it because dough becomes less by being much kneaded (and this is the nature of that which is sticky), but the moisture has been expelled from every part of the loaf by the fire, so that, when the moisture has been entirely expelled, the loaf becomes more uncohesive the more it is kneaded, because in the kneading it is divided up into smaller particles? Now that which is uncohesive is more easily concocted. Barley-cake, on the other hand, the more it is kneaded becomes more sticky, as the liquid mingles in it; and that which is sticky is not easily divided up, and such foods are not easily concocted ; for that which is to be concocted must be split up into small parts. Why does barley-cake become less when it is kneaded, 9 whereas dough becomes more? Is it because barley-meal when moistened and kneaded unites owing to the binding quality of the moisture, because it is of even texture and granulated, but wheaten-flour rises, because it is very dense? For that which is dense grows hot when kneaded and, when it is hot and inflated, it rises, as does the flesh. But why does dough increase more when it is heated than 10 barley-cake does?! Is it because dough contains moisture which is not separated’ in such a way that it can escape when warmed, owing to the kneading? When therefore it is warmed, breath is engendered, and more breath is necessarily engendered from a greater amount of moisture. Why is it that although honey is more adhesive than 11 water, wheaten-flour is more uncohesive, when it is boiled or baked, if it is mixed with honey-water than with water ? Is it because water becomes stiff and solid under the influence of the heat, whereas the honey becomes solid but also has ' Cp. chapter 23. BOOK XXI. n 928" a drying effect, and so makes the food more uncohesive (for this quality is produced by dryness) ? Io 12 Why do twice-baked loaves, when they are cool, not become hard? Is it because wheat has in it a certain sweet and sticky juice, which is as it were its ‘soul’? This can be illustrated by the fact that when it is dried it becomes quite empty, but, when it is wetted, it expands! This juice, therefore, being present also in wheaten-flour, especially in that of the purest quality, when the flour is made into dough and the dough is kneaded the same thing? happens, as is proved by the fact that when it is boiled it becomes more digestible. -When, therefore, the bread is baked for the first time, the thin and light part of the moisture‘ is evaporated from the bread, and the part of the flour which 20 most resembles chaff is burnt out. But when the dough is taken out and kneaded again, the smoothest part of the flour and the® stickiest part of the moisture being left mingle more with one another, owing to the fact that they have become smoother and stickier, and owing to the effect of the heat; for their mixing resembles the process of dyeing, so that the dough, when subsequently kneaded, is like boiled flour. For when this® dough is kneaded and the lightest flour and the stickiest moisture are left, the bread, when it has been exposed to the fire, becomes glutinous and does not dry up; for that which is sticky cannot be separated, and that which is dense does not of 30 itself give up any moisture.’ Twice-baked bread then undergoes this same process for the reasons mentioned above, and, always containing moisture, does not become hard. i 5 wb o ce) 13. Why is it that we can go on partaking of some kinds both of solid and of liquid food for a long period—for 1 Reading expuaara, since éexpiera: does not offer any contrast to Kevourat. 2 Reading ravro for adré. is 8 The pcint here is not clear, unless boiling, like kneading (cp. chapter 8), gets rid of rd yAoxpdv and causes Pabupdrns. 4 Omitting de. vk a 5 Reading kat (rd) rod bypod. é Reading ¢keivov, 7 Reading mpoiera: typdv. radtd obv rodro Kat Simupos KTH. y 928° 35 PROBLEMATA instance, food made from barley-meal and wheaten-flour, and dry wines, and water—whereas we cannot partake continually of others, though they are pleasanter to the taste? Is it because some of the foods which we take tend to float on the stomach and are highly nutritious,' so that when one has discharged them,? though their first nutri- 928” ment has been consumed, a considerable force still remains 5 Io 15 20 in the body, concocted for the first bodily process but unconcocted for its final purpose and for the succeeding process? Now most of the pleasing foods belong to this class; for the fatty and sweet and rich foods seem pleasantest to our taste, and these, however they differ from one another, are all foods which are nutritious, and not difficult of con- coction, and apt to float on the stomach; their force is therefore lasting, if one takes one’s fill of them, and the perception of them does not quickly pass away ;* for the feeling of satiety does not only continue while they are in the stomach but also when their nutriment has been dis- tributed to other parts of the body. Or is this not the only reason, and is there a further reason, namely, that some foods are naturally suited and akin to us? For our bodies accept all such foods more readily because they are natural, while they accept less readily those which are unnatural. And different foods suit different tempera- ments; for example, honey is the natural food of bees, so that they take no other, though they are physically weak ; so that what they consume must be small in amount, but must be to their strength as what men eat is to theirs. And so any pleasing foods which are of this kind seem pleasing because they are present in small quantities in our nature, but they only appear so for a short time, and then soon cause a feeling of satiety. But we always need the natural foods, so that we feel less satiety from foods continually taken other than those which are most pleasing in themselves.* 1 Cp. de Sensu, 442* 10-12. _ * xevoOaoris apparently an ‘impersonal’ third person plural, which in this problem alternates with the first person plural. * Reading ékhureiy (Bussemaker) for ekAury, and placing a comma after m\npwOh. * 8C avra od ray 7dioTwy is apparently equivalent to od rav Ov abra 1diotav. BOOK XXI. 14 928° 14 Why is it that the same things seem pleasant when we are becoming accustomed to them and not pleasant if we partake of them too continuously, though being accustomed 25 to anything is doing it often and continuously ? Is it because custom engenders a receptive habit but does not bring satiety, whereas taking anything continuously fills up the desire, just as a vessel! is filled; for desire is a kind of void? Now habits, when exercised, increase and grow, but vessels when they are filled full do not become any bigger. Hence custom, being an exercise, increases the 30 receptive habit; but that which is continuously taken fills up and satisfies the desire, and, when this is satisfied, we no longer receive any more, and nothing can increase the desire for the reasons already stated regarding the filling of vessels. Furthermore, custom is not pleasant through constantly giving pleasure (for such things too cause pain through 35 continual practice), but because we enter upon the beginning of the process with pleasure and can continue doing the same thing longer than if we were unaccustomed to it. In the same way then as custom, which is pleasant, causes pain, so too do all other pleasant things; for things which happen and foods which are taken continuously, both alike cause pain. The reason is that the powers of acceptance 929° and action which we possess in ourselves * are not unlimited but limited, and when they have reached their full capacity (and this is continually visible to an increasing extent) the receptive powers are satisfied, and the powers for action can no longer function. 5 15 Why does dough become white when it is kneaded, while barley-cake becomes blacker? Is it because the surface of the barley-meal becomes drier, and it is the* heat in the moisture which causes the whiteness? Or is it because, through exposure to the heat, the surface of barley-meal attracts the moisture, since it consists of larger particles? 10 1 Reading dyyeiov for atirtoy (Bonitz). 2 Reading xevéy for kai (Bonitz). 3 Reading avrois (Bonitz). 4 Reading ré d¢€ ev type Oeppdv moet (Y*® omits 6 before moet). The Latin version of T.G. renders ‘calor autem humori permistus can- dorem gignit’. 929" PROBLEMATA Why does barley-meal adhere better together when 16 mixed with water than with oil, though oil is more viscous ? Yet that which is viscous is more binding, and oil is more viscous than water. Is it because water is thinner and so penetrates into everything and makes the barley-meal 15 soft, and the grains adhere together better and are com- pressed into one another, even though pressed together without any kneading ? Why does bread which is either not kneaded or very 17 much kneaded break up? Does the unkneaded bread do so because it is not sufficiently bound together? Now it is the kneading that binds the bread; so that unkneaded bread is already on the way to breaking up. Further, it 20 CCntains much moisture not properly mixed in.' Bread which is very much kneaded is dry, because it has very little moisture; for when it is heated, the moisture all escapes. So that in both cases the bread breaks up because much moisture goes forth; for much moisture is actually present in the unkneaded bread, and in the over-kneaded bread much (escapes)? compared to what remains behind. 25 Why is the admixture of barley-meal and liquid lighter 18 than the two things together when unmixed? Is it because, when they are mixed, air is enclosed in them? Or is it because part of the water is evaporated by the heat in the barley-meal, and so the mixture becomes smaller in bulk? The air, however, if it were also mixed in, would not make 30 the mixture any lighter ; for air enclosed in air possesses weight. Why do milk and sweet wine appear sweeter it drunk 1g with barley-meal? Do they appear sweeter in contrast with anything which is not sweet (for barley-meal is not sweet)? Or is it because the barley-meal continues to hold 35 sweetness, and so the perception of it is prolonged ? Why does the same potion seem less strong if it is drunk 20 with barley-meal? Is it because the barley unites what has * Which therefore escapes when the baking takes place. ’ The text as it stands contradicts dua rd ddéyou éxew vypov (1. 21), and some such word as éfeor appears to have dropped out. BOOK XXI. 20 929° one quality with what has another, or because the barley- meal interferes with the potion and destroys it, absorbing it into itself ? 21 Why does gruel take up more water than the wheat from 929° which such gruel is made? Is it because the gruel is a kind of flour, and flour takes up more water (for its bulk is greater than that of the wheat, for even the particles of the wheat are packed closely together)? Now that which is 5 more holds more both for this reason! and also because both flour and gruel contain heat, and heat both attracts the moisture more and expends it by evaporation. 22 Why does wheaten-flour increase much more in propor- tion than barley-meal when it is kneaded ?? Is it because flour admits a large quantity of water, but barley-meal only a little? (But why does it admit more, for barley-meal would naturally be expected to do so, because it has been exposed to heat, whereas the flour has not, and that which has been exposed to heat is drier?) Or is it because flour admits of more kneading, the reason being that it is com- posed of smaller particles? As therefore it is potentially as it were more manifold by reason of the smallness of its parts, so much the more water does it take up. For it 15 uses the water as a glue—a metaphor employed by Empedocles in the PAysics,’ when he says ‘ gluing barley with water ’—and it consumes much water for this reason. ° 23. Why does dough increase more when it has been heated than barley-cake does?* Is it because it contains moisture which is not separated in such a way that it can escape when it is warmed, and this® moisture, becoming breath 20 and not being able to escape (as it can in the barley-cake) owing to the density of the dough (for that which is made up of smaller particles is dense), makes the dough, therefore, 1 Reading with Bonitz rAciov kat (di) rovro. * Cp. chapter 9. 3 Cp. Meteor. 3821 and Diels, Vorsokr.’ i, p. 239; 7: 4 A longer version of chapter Io. 5 Reading with Bonitz 6 mvedpa yerduevoy kai ob Ouvapevoy Kt, 929° PROBLEMATA rise and causes the mass to be greater? Furthermore, the moisture which it contains is more considerable, and it is from this, when it is heated, that the breath is engendered ; and from the greater amount of moisture more breath must necessarily be engendered. we on Why is it that, of persons engaged in the preparation of 24 cereals, those who handle barley become pale and are subject to catarrh, while those who handle wheat are healthy ?1! Is it because wheat is more easily concocted than barley, and therefore its emanations are also more easily concocted ? 30 Why is it that bread, if one toasts it, becomes harder, 25 whereas, if one warms it, it becomes moister up to a certain point? Is it because, when it is toasted, the moisture goes out of it, and so it becomes harder, whereas, when it is warmed, the moisture having acquired consistency is liquefied again by the fire, and so the bread becomes moister ? w on Why does flour, as it cools, become less closely packed, 26 but barley-meal more so? Is it because things which are made up of small particles contain no vacant spaces, and heavy things, by the pressure which they exert, take up the same space whether they are more or less? numerically ? Barley-meal then is soft; when it cools, therefore, it becomes less, so that the less is more compressed.? But wheaten- 930° flour already consists of small particles, and so it does not cool in this way,* but in such a way as to become lighter and not so as to become more closely packed by com- pression ; for wheaten-flour is naturally heavier than barley- meal. ‘ This problem occurs again at xxxviil. 10; cp. also 863° 35 ff. It is quoted as occurring in the vorxa TpoB\rpara of Aristotle by Apollonius, A7s¢. JZirad. 7. 2 Reading ra mrelw (i) ) eAdt Te. $ Reading ouumeéferai tA€ov. T.G, renders ‘ut quod minus est . pilus constipet in se’. * Reading a tovrov, T.G. renders ‘non ideo resiccatur’. a 930 BOOK XXII PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH FRUIT 5 1 Why is it that the volume of food necessary for repletion is not proportionate! in the same persons if they eat fruit at the beginning and at the end of a meal? Is it because fruit is much heavier than solid food? This can be illus- trated by the fact that figs, though eaten last, are vomited out last. If, therefore, they are eaten first, owing to their weight they sink downwards and leave ample space above, so that one can easily contain the volume of solid food. If, however, the converse takes place, the solid food when it enters in, because it does not sink downwards, quickly occupies the vacant upper space. (e) 2 Why is it that, although sweet foods are more akin to us than pungent, we are more quickly sated by the former ?? For the contrary might have been expected, since we might naturally be supposed to be less sated by foods which are akin to us. Is it because the organ whereby we receive nourishment * and the body, which is nourished, are not sated equally quickly, but sometimes the stomach is full, in those, for instance, who are thirsty, but the thirst is not less ? For we do not cease being thirsty because the stomach is 20 full, but when each part of the body has drawn thence its own particular moisture; and we cease being thirsty only when they have received this in sufficiency. The same thing also occurs when we are hungry. I or 3. Why are we more quickly sated by sweet than by pungent foods?‘ Is it because we cease desiring sweet things sooner ? Or, while it is not generally admitted® that we become is) ur 1 Reading dvddoyos with C4, AP, and according to Bekker Y®. 2 Cpuchapter.3: $ Reading rpepopeda with Bonitz for m\ynpovpeda. * Cp. chapter 2. 5 Putting a comma after yAukéwy in 1. 27; it is obvious that the sentences introduced by pev and 6¢ are parallel and that the general sense is the same as that of ll. 16-22 above. 930° PROBLEMATA satiated as the stomach is filled by sweet foods, yet might it not be said that our desire is more quickly sated by them? Or is it because desire is simply a want, which occurs when 30 we no longer have any nutriment in us or very little? Pungent foods then are not nourishing, but contain little nutriment and a considerable amount of excrement. We therefore naturally seek to eat them in large quantities, and yet do not satiate our desire with them,’ because we still lack nutriment and they do not contain it. But all sweet foods 35 are nutriment, and the body derives a large amount of nutri- ment from a small quantity of them. When, therefore, it derives a large amount of nutriment, it can no longer eat, because it cannot tolerate more. We are therefore naturally more quickly satisfied by sweet foods. 930° Why is it that fruits and meat and the like remain 4 uncorrupted if placed in skins, when these are tightly inflated, as also do substances placed in closely covered vessels ?2_ Is it because all things become corrupt through being in motion, and things which are full are without motion (for it is impossible for anything to be moved without there being a void), and these vessels are full ? 5 Why does wine seem bitter when drunk after the eating 5 of rotten fruits? Is it because such rottenness contains bitterness? That, then, which remains on the tongue, mingling with the draught and becoming diffused in it, makes the draught bitter. The fruit by itself, when eaten, ro seems less bitter, because juice of this kind takes effect at many different points and is divided up into small particles. Why should dried fruits be eaten? Is it in order that we 6 may drink sufficiently ?) For we ought not only to drink to satisfy the thirst which is engendered by solid food, but also when the solid food is finished. 15 Why do roasted nuts deteriorate when they become cool, 7 and also bread and acorns and many such things, but improve when they are heated again? Is it because, when * Reading atréy. ? A shorter version of this problem occurs in xxv. 17. BOOK XXII. 7 930° they become cold, the juice becomes hard, but, when they are warmed up, it becomes liquid again, and it is the juice which is pleasing ? 8 Why is it that, for the proper enjoyment of fruits such as 20 figs and the like, one ought to drink with them either unmixed wine or water, which are the opposites of one another? Is it because fruit is both hot and moist owing to the manner of its growth? For it contains much both of fire and of moisture; and so, owing to the fire, the juice causes as it were a boiling within, such as must makes on 25 the surface (though the others, the hard-shelled fruit, also have this force, but in a less degree), while the large quantity of moisture causes an unconcocted condition. Water then, owing to its coldness, extinguishes the boiling, as wine also usually does by its heat; for it takes away its power, just as one fire extinguishes another if the latter be 30 less. And wine by its heat is better able to concoct the moisture, and by its weight it prevails over the scum formed on the surface by the boiling. g Why is it that those dried figs are sweetest which are slit twice, and not those which are slit either many times or not at all? Is it because, if they are slit many times, most ot the sweetness escapes and evaporates with the moisture, 35 whereas in those which are entirely closed the watery element is considerable, because it has not been turned into vapour? Those, however, which have been slit, but not many times, do not suffer from either of these dis- advantages. Why is it that figs when they are dried! in an oven are harder if they are left to cool in the oven than if they are g31? taken out to cool? Is it because in the oven all the moisture is evaporated by the heat, whereas outside the surrounding air cools the moisture and prevents it from escaping and the moisture retains its consistency rather than evaporates ?? 5 Now what is dry is hard, and what is moist is soft. Io Reading with Sylburg énpawdpeva for Wuxopeva. Ay 2 Reading kat curiorara: paddov fp e€atpicer, paddov yap eLarpifer does not give the required sense. 931° PROBLEMATA Why is it that wine and water seem sweeter when taken II with something sour, if, for instance, one munches acorns or myrtle-berries or something of the kind? Is not this natural and does it not happen in other things too? For everything seems to assert its identity more forcibly when ro compared with its opposite, and here the tastes of the two opposites are in a way set against one another. Or is it because, as in objects which are being dyed, the tongue has already been permeated by the sour matter and opens its pores, and so the sweetness can penetrate better? For objects which are being dyed are first of all moistened in sour liquid, because that which is thus permeated! takes 15 the dye better. 20 is} ou 30 Why do sweet things seem to be less sweet when they 12 are hot than when they are cold? Is it because two sensa- tions of the two qualities are present together, and so that of heat dispels the other? Or is it because that which is sweet” is also hot, and it is therefore a case of ‘ fire upon fire’, and thus the heat prevents the perception of the sweetness? Or is it because fire takes away the power of everything, since it causes motion? Things, then, which are hot are nearer to change, but when they cool they become stable again. Why is it that chaff concocts hard fruits and does not 13 corrupt those which are already concocted? Is it because chaff is both hot and absorbent? It, therefore, by its heat causes concoction, while owing to its absorbent property it attracts the corrupted impurity, which therefore does not cause corruption. Why do figs, which are soft and sweet, destroy the teeth ? 14 Do they, owing to their stickiness, penetrate into the gums, and, because they are soft, insinuate themselves into the spaces between the teeth, and, being hot, quickly cause decay? Perhaps also, owing to the hardness of the seeds, the teeth are quickly caused to ache in the process of chewing them up. * Reading r@ (1d) dtepyac bev. > Reading yAuxd for yAedxos, which is invariably used to mean ‘ must’. 931° BOOK XXIII PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH SALT WATER AND THE SEA 1 WHY is it that the waves do not ripple in the deep open 35 sea, but only where it is confined and shallow?! Is it because a small amount of liquid, as it is carried along, is more divided up by the wind than a large amount? 2 Why do the waves sometimes begin to move before the winds reach them?? Is it because the portion of the sea near the source of the wind being impelled along first has 931° continually the same effect upon the adjoining part, and so, since the sea is continuous, the same effect is caused in every part of it, as though from one continuous impetus? Now this occurs simultaneously, with the result that the first and the last parts of the sea are set in motion at the same time. This effect is not produced in the air, because it is not a single body (since many hindrances affect 5 it from all sides, which often cut short the first and most vigorous movement) ; the sea, however, suffers from no such impediments, because it is heavier and less easily disturbed than the air. 3. Why do ships seem to be more heavily loaded in harbour than out at sea, and why do they travel more quickly from 10 the open sea towards the land than from the land towards the open sea? Is it because the greater quantity of water offers more resistance than® the less, and the vessel sinks deeper into the latter, because it prevails more over it, for it pushes up the water from below? Now ina harbour the sea is shallow, but deep out at sea; so that a vessel will 15 seem to carry a heavier load in harbour and will move with greater difficulty, because it is sunk deeper into the water, 1 Cp. below, chapter 24. Ly 2 Cp. below, chapters 12 and 28. * Omitting éx. 645-25 R gg” PROBLEMATA which offers less resistance. But in the open sea the contrary happens. Why is it that if anything (for example an anchor) is 4 20 thrown into the sea when it is rough, a calm ensues? Is it because the sea is stopped by the descending object, with which a certain amount of air is carried down, and this air, carried in a direct course downwards and drawn thither, draws with it also the lateral force which is disturbing the sea? Now a wave does not move downwards from above but along the surface, and, when it ceases, a calm ensues. 25 Furthermore, the sea, as it closes in upon the space opened by the descending object, makes an eddy, and eddies move inacircle. Now since it is a case of a straight line touching a circle at a point (and waves travel obliquely in a straight line), the result would be that the waves touch the circum- ference of the eddy only at a point, both for the reasons 30 stated and because the eddy pushes the wave off as soon as it comes into contact with it. The place, then, where the eddy is, being without waves, the result is that there is a calm where the surface is broken, because the air, which descended with the object thrown in, subsequently ascending and thrusting the sea upwards, causes it as it were to bubble ; 35 for a bubble consists of moisture thrust up by air from below. Now every bubble is smooth and still. A proof that the above process takes place is given by the fact that the sea at the point where the object is thrown in rises a moment later to a higher level than the surrounding sea. Why is it that sometimes vessels which are journeying 5 over the sea in fine weather are swallowed up and disappear 932°so completely that no wreckage even is washed up? Is it because, when a cavernous space breaks open in the earth beneath the sea, the ship at the same time follows the rush of air! into the sea and into the cavern? And in like manner the sea, being carried everywhere” round in a 5 circle, is borne downwards; and this constitutes a whirl- ‘ It appears unnecessary to read here Jevparos for mvevparos as suggested by Bonitz. * ava depdueva should perhaps be read. BOOK XXIII. 5 eyes pool. And ships in the Straits of Messina suffer the same fate owing to the flow of water, which causes eddies, and are swallowed up into the abyss, for the reasons stated above and also because the sea is deep and the land cavernous to a great distance. The eddies, therefore, over- power the ships and carry them thither, and so no wreckage 10 is washed up. The flow occurs when, the former wind having stopped, a contrary wind blows over the sea when it is running under the impulse of the former wind, and especially when the contrary wind is the south wind. For the currents flowing against! one another try to thrust one another aside, as happens in rivers, and eddies are formed. And the original movement, which is strong, is borne 15 whirling round and round from above. Since then the currents cannot travel laterally (for they are mutually repelled), they must be thrust down into the depths, and so whatever is caught by the eddy must necessarily be carried down too. Hence they build ships with slanting ends; for cases have been recorded before now in which a ship with straight ends has been swallowed up. 58 6 Why is the water whiter in the Black Sea than in the Aegean? Is it owing to the refraction of the vision from the sea into the air? For in the region of the Black Sea the air is thick and white, so that the surface of the sea appears to be similar, whereas in the Aegean it is blue, 25 because it is clear to a great distance, and so the sea too reflecting the air appears to be similar. Or is it because all lakes are more whitish than the sea, and the Black Sea has the character of a lake because many rivers flow into it ? Now lakes are whiter than the sea, and than rivers; for 30 example, painters picture rivers as pale yellow and the sea as blue. Or is it because the sight cannot penetrate quickly through fresh water and is refracted into the air,” but is not ' Reading dytippéovta for dvturvéovtra. This change gives better sense than Bonitz’s change of mvetara for pevpura. 2 The text as it stands gives no satisfactory sense, and we must read: i dre Suc pév Tov roripov (ob) diepxerar ray 4 ois, Kal avak\arat mpos Tov aépa, amd de ths Oadiaans ovr’ dvw dvakdarat Ou Td py Netov elvat 1 UOwp, Kit Te kTh. This gives agreement with the doctrine of Il. 35- 37 and »8, and, except for the insertion of the first negative (which R 2 932° PROBLEMATA refracted from the sea, because the water is not smooth, but 35 the sight tires of trying to penetrate into the depths, and so the sea appears black? But in seas of a lake-like character, since the fresh water is on the surface and the salt water below, the sight does not penetrate, but is refracted towards the daylight; and so the surface of the sea appears white. Why is the sea less cold than drinking water, and salt 7 932° water in general than fresh? Is it because the sea is denser and has more body? Now such things are less susceptible to cold, just as they are more easily heated ; for owing to their density they are better able to retain heat. Or is it s because the sea is of a more fatty composition ! (and so does not extinguish fire as well as? other kinds of water), and the more fatty anything is the hotter it is? Or is it because it contains much earth and is therefore drier, and the drier a thing is the hotter it is? Why is the sea more transparent than fresh water, 8 although it is thicker?* For fresh water is rarer than salt. 10 Has rarity nothing to do with the question, and is the reason that in salt water there are direct interstices which are very numerous and wide? Fresh water, therefore, has density owing to the small particles of which it is composed, whereas salt water contains great voids. Or is it because the sea is clearer? For there is no earth in it,t but the sand, which is heavy, is precipitated; but fresh water is 15 earthy, and the earth® floating in its midst is easily stirred into mud. Why is the sea more transparent when the wind is ing the north than when it is in the south? Is it because the sea has colour when it is calm? For there is something according to Pekker has the MS. authority of X#), was obviously the reading translated by the author of the Latin version, which renders, ‘an quia per aquam bibi idoneam visus penetrare facile potest, aerem versus reflectitur: e mari autem nec sursum reflecti potest, quoniam levis aqua non est, et deorsum progrediens fatigatur’. * Plutarch, Quaest. Conviv, iil. 3, refers to this statement as Aristotelian. > Omitting the full-stop after pddya. 5 Cp. chapter 38. * Reading éveors for éore, ® Reading avrn (= 7 yn, implied in yeadn). fatty in the juice of salt water, as is shown by the fact that in hot weather an oily substance is excreted from the sea. When, therefore, the sea is calm and warmer, juice of this 20 kind forms on the surface of the sea owing to its lightness.! This is less likely to happen when the wind is in the north, owing to the cold. Now water is more transparent than oil; for oil has colour, but water, presenting itself without colour to the vision, gives a clearer image. 10 Why does one dry more quickly after washing in the sea, 25 although sea water is heavier than fresh ?? Is it because the sea is thicker and earthy?* Since, therefore, it has little moisture in it, it dries more quickly. 11 Why are the waves an indication of wind? Is it because they are a sign of wind in the future? For wind is a 30 massing together of air, which occurs because the air is continually thrust forward.4 But the wind begins to thrust the air forward when it is not yet blowing continuously but only just beginning. The first breath of wind then as it were dies down before having any effect, but it thrusts forward another breath and drives on another mass of air and then dies away. It is clear therefore, when the wave which is thrust forward is already present, that that which 35 sets it in motion will also come; for it causes this effect when it first begins to blow. 12. Why do the waves break forth before the wind?° Is it because the wind does not cease to blow “ and the sea to be rough at the same time, but the sea ceases later? For’ it is possible that the wind which set the wave in motion 933 ! Placing the comma before instead of after dua xoupdryra. * Plutarch, Quaest. Conviv. iv. 1, refers to this problem as Aristotelian. 3 This is a contradiction of the doctrine of |. 13 above. * Reading with Bonitz aépos, 7) dia 1d dei tpowbeio Bur yivera.. 5 Cp. chapters 2 and 28, ® Omitting 76 before mvéor. 7 As the text stands there are two principal verbs in the sentence }) Ore... aloOyrdv, namely, maverat and évdéxerat, and there is no connexion between them. This suggested solution of the problem is obviously the same as that offered in a shorter form in chapter 28 (934° 5 ff.) Sire Kal reXevta Varepov ; TO yup TpOTepoy mvevpa ooavel mpodiadverat tod doOevros Kipatos. We must therefore read add Varepoy 7 Oadarra ; evOexXeTat yap KTA. 933° on 15 PROBLEMATA perishes before it becomes perceptible ; and so the wave is not really prior to the wind, but the former is noticeable, while the latter is not. Or do the winds not blow every- where at the same time, but at first only in the quarter from which they arise? Now as soon as they begin to blow, they set in motion the sea which is near them, and this sets in motion the adjoining sea; and thus it would be possible for the wave to break forth before the wind reaches it. For the movement is due to the sea and not to wind, being a movement of the sea which travels more quickly than that of the air. : Why is it easier to swim in the sea than ina river? Is it because the swimmer always leans on the water as he swims, and we receive more support from that which is of a more corporeal nature,? and sea water is more corporeal than river water, for it is thicker and able to offer more resistance to pressure ? Why can one remain longer in the sea than in a river? Is it because river water is rare and therefore penetrates more into the body and chokes one? Why is sea water combustible, while fresh water is not ?* Or does fresh water also burn, while the reason why sea water has less power to extinguish fire is because it is of a more fatty composition?* (And that it is so is proved by the fact that an oil is given off from sea water.®) Or are the interstices in sea water" less able to adapt themselves to fire because they are too wide, and all the more so owing to the presence also of salt? As, therefore, that which is dry has less power to quench than that which is moist, so that which is drier is proportionately more capable of being burnt, one thing being more so than another, since the drier 1 2 a a ¢ ’ € ‘ Se Er G - , Reading with Bonitz 1) xivnows, ) Odtrey rod dépos, 1) Tis Oadatrns, which Is equivalent to » xivnows 9 Tis Oaddtrys, Odtrwv odca tH Tov GEépos Kivnats. Dies tha yes ‘ : Cp. Vlut. Quaest. Conviz. i. 9, which appears to be a direct reference to this passage. * Cp. chapter 32. *Cp.ab 32» © 1b. 18 ff. ieee 13 14 15 BOOK XXIII. 15 933° a thing is the more closely allied is it to heat;! and sea water possesses both these qualities of dryness and heat to a greater extent than fresh water. 16 Why is it that the wind blows cold in early morning from rivers, but not from the sea?? Is it because the sea extends Over Open spaces, but rivers are in narrow places? The breeze, therefore, from the sea is dispersed over a wide area 30 and is consequently weak ; whereas the breeze from a river is carried along in a mass and is stronger and therefore naturally seems colder. Or is the reason other than this, namely, that the rivers are cold, but the sea is neither hot nor cold? Now a breeze or an exhalation is due to the 35 heating or cooling of liquids; for whichever of these two processes they undergo, evaporation takes place, and, when water evaporates, the resultant air is set in motion, and this is a breeze. That which is produced from cold liquids naturally blows cold, while that which blows from very hot 40 liquids cools and becomes cold. One would, therefore, find 933” that all the rivers are cold, but that the sea is neither very hot nor very cold. That which blows from it, therefore, is not cold, because it is not itself cold, nor does it cool quickly, because it is not very hot. 17 Why do waves calm down more slowly in the wider open 5 sea than in shallow waters? Is it because everything calms down more slowly after much motion than after little? Now in the wide open sea the ebb and flow is greater than in shallow waters; there is, therefore, nothing strange if that which is greater is more slow in calming down. 10 18 Why is it that salt water when it is cold is not drinkable, but becomes more drinkable when it is heated, and when it is heated and then cooled? Is it because a thing naturally changes from one opposite into the other? Now drinkable water is the opposite of salt water; and, when salt water is heated, the salt is boiled out, and, when it cools, is precipitated. wm 1 Reading with Bonitz 76 éeyyutepo rod Oeppov etvat ro Enporepov. TH dé Oadutty do tavta paddoy vTap xet. i 2 This problem occurs again in Book xxvi. chapter 30. 933° PROBLEMATA Why is it that waters near the sea are usually fresh and 19 not salty ? Is it because water which is allowed to percolate becomes more drinkable, and the nearer water is to the sea 20 the more it percolates? Why does salt water not flow readily? Is it because that 20 which is heavy is stationary, and salt water is heavy ? Hence only warm salt waters flow readily, for they have lightness in them which prevails over the heaviness which is in their a5 saltness; for that which is hot is lighter. Furthermore, water which flows readily can percolate through the earth ; and if water can percolate, the thickest and heaviest part of it is always carried to the bottom, while the light and clean element becomes separated. For salt water is heavy and 30 fresh water is light. And so flowing water is fresh. It is for the same reason that salt water, when it is set in motion and undergoes change, becomes fresher; for it becomes lighter and weaker owing to the motion. Why is it that in Libya, if one digs a hole near the sea, 21 the water that first comes “is drinkable, but afterwards 35 quickly becomes salty, but this happens less elsewhere?! Is it because the water which comes first is the water which was already there and has been concocted by the earth, but after a time the sea also percolates through ® and, because it has had no time to undergo any change, makes the water more salty? [{Elsewhere, however, there is * either no water 4o or abundant water, because the ground is not dried up.] a Why does salt water melt salt more quickly than drinking 22 934 A gq Ma g water? Is it because the process of melting anything is its dissolution by moisture or heat penetrating into it so that it becomes liquid? Now those things do not cause melting which either cannot penetrate at all or penetrate in such a way as not to touch the substance. Those things which 5 pass through easily scarcely cause any melting, but those ‘Gp: chapter 37. ? Reading mpoodinOoupern. $ The Latin version of T. G. renders ‘aqua vel nulla est vel plurima’, but €xec can hardly be used thus intransitively by itself, and we must either read ovdx éore or else 6 téos for rév té70v. The sentence, how- ever, is quite out of place here and appears to have come in from some other problem, BOOK XXIII. 22 934° which enter in with violence dissolve substances very quickly. Now those liquids which are composed of very large particles do not penetrate, for they are too large for the pores ; while those which are composed of small particles pass through without touching. Now drinking water is rare, while salt water is thicker; and so the former, passing through easily owing to its rarity, scarcely causes any melting, whereas the latter penetrates, but percolates through’ to a less extent, because it is composed of larger particles, and forces its way in more quickly. ~ fe) 23. Why does water appear less white when it is in motion, for instance when there is a ripple? Whence Homer says that, when the wind begins to blow, the sea grows blacker beneath it.? 15 Are there two reasons? Firstly, because, when the sight is near to it, it can penetrate farther through the water when it is still, but when it is in motion the sight cannot pass directly through it. (And that which is transparent appears white, for that through which the sight cannot pass is what Homer calls black; therefore the air appears black from a distance but white near at hand, and the part of the sea 20 which is near is white, while that which is distant is blue or black.) And, secondly, because,’ when the sight is at a distance and is subject in any way to disturbance, it is refracted back in a mass towards the light, if the water is still,t but cannot be refracted when it is in motion. 24 Why is it that the waves do not ripple in the deep, open 25 sea, but only on small expanses?’ Is it because a small amount of water, as it is carried along, is more divided by the air than a large amount? Hence it beats more and is broken up. Now in deep water the quantity which is set in motion is great, but in shallow water it is small. 1 Reading diappei for dcatpe?, which contradicts the doctrine of ll. 5,6. 2 Iliad vii. 64. $ Reading di: 76 for kai ro (C*, Y*, and AP read 1d) to correspond to the da 76 Ouwevar in |. 16. 4 Placing a comma after npeny. 5 A longer version of chapter 1. 934° PROBLEMATA 30 Why are the waters saltier in regions facing the south 25 wind? Do they become mixed because the sea is driven under the earth by the south wind? Why does the salty element in water come to the 26 surface more in sweet than in dry wine? Is it because 35 sweet wine, like raisin wine, has more earth in it? Or is it because sweet wine is heavier and stickier and so mixes less, and, as the wine does not mix! with the water, the salty element comes to the surface? Why does the salty element, being earthy, float on the 27 surface at all (for its natural tendency is to sink)? Is it? 934° owing to its heat, as happens with salt (for it resembles an efflorescence)? Or is there some other reason? For if it is for no other reason,* it is not unreasonable that it should be for this reason that it floats specially on the surface of sweet wine; for that is the hottest of wines. Why do the waves sometimes begin to move before the 28 5 winds reach them?* Is it because they also cease to move later? For the first breath of wind as it were dies down before the wave which has been impelled by it into motion ; and it is not the wave which is first set in motion that arrives, but there is a® successive impetus given to the adjoining water. Why is it that the ground where the waves break more 29 violently becomes solid, often to such an extent as to appear to to have been artificially levelled, and why is the ground where the waves break solid, whereas further from the sea it is loose? Is it because the fine sand is not cast up from a long way off by the waves, but rather the coarser sand, just as it is not possible to throw a very small object far with the hand? Then, many objects being mingled in 15 confusion, the smallest particles fall out® and form into a mass, and the motion of the wave, as it recedes, levels ; Reading pyvupevov (W. D. RS): > Omitting dre paddov Eye yzv 6 yAuK’s; 4) with the best MSS. These words obviously came in from the previous chapter. _ Placing a comma after od and omitting that after wa\Xov. * Cp. chapters 2 and i2 above. ° Omitting 7 before dacs. ° Reading éximrovra; the Latin version renders inéerlapsa. BOOK XXIII. 29 934° them and no longer disturbs them. Since, then, the smallest particles cannot leap far, a mass is formed of very small objects; and since it is in frequent motion, it becomes con- tinuous, the sand falling in amongst it until it unites it together; it is then levelled by the last waves, and the 20 slight moisture causes it to adhere together. But the ground farther from the sea, being dry, becomes disinte- grated, and is formed of larger pebbles and is unlevelled. 30 Why is it that the upper parts of the sea are saltier and hotter than the depths? So, too, in wells of drinking water 25 the upper water is saltier than that at the bottom; yet salty water, being heavier, ought to stand at a lower level. Is it because the sun and the air always attract the lightest part of liquid? Now water which is suitable for drinking is always lighter, and the sun can more easily attract it from the part of the water nearest to it. And so that which is left on the surface both of the sea and of drinking water is 30 saltier (since the fresh element has been extracted) than that from which little or nothing has been withdrawn. For this reason the upper part is also hotter; for salt water is hotter than drinking water. Therefore some of the followers of Heraclitus declare that stones and earth are formed from the drying and solidifying of fresh water’ and that 35 the sun draws up vapours from the sea.” 31 Why are the waters of the sea fresher which are nearer the land? Is it because they are more continuously in motion? Now salt water becomes fresher through motion. Or is it because the water is saltier in its depths,’ and the 935° part of the sea near the land is less deep? Wherefore also water which shelves deeply near the shore is less fresh, The reason of this is that the salty element being heavy is carried down more into deep water. 32 Why is sea water the only kind of water that is com- 5 bustible,t whereas drinking water and river water are not? Is it because it has much earth in it, as is proved by the 1 Diels, Vorsokr. i.° p. 434, 5. eT Gp yXXIVeilile 3 This directly contradicts the doctrine of chapter 30. * Cp. above, chapter 15. 935° PROBLEMATA presence of the salt in it? Or is it because it is of a fatty composition, as is proved by the oil which forms on the surface! of salt water ? Why does sand not form in lakes, or at any rate less 10 than in the sea and in rivers? Is it because rocks form in the sea and the earth has been to a great extent burnt out of them? Now sand is rock which has been broken up into small and minute particles, and it is broken up by the impetus of the waves. But in lakes rocks free of earth are not formed to the same extent, nor are they broken to the 15 same extent, because there are not waves to the same extent. But sand is formed more in rivers, because they carry down the earth and break up the rocks with their impetus. Why is it that, when a lake either falls or drjes up, the corn in the adjoining plain is more likely to be cut off by frost? Is it because the moisture in the lake evaporates 20 and warms the air with its vapour, and so makes the frosts slighter and weaker than in hollow and marshy districts? Or is it from the earth, as men say, that the cold begins and penetrates unnoticed? If then the lake becomes dry, owing to the larger space of earth greater cold attacks the a5crops and freezes them and cuts them off to a greater extent; and on such ground the cold comes from below, as is the popular belief. And yet the earth is warm in winter ; but the surface heat which is in the earth, owing to the fact that it is moist, becomes cocled, for the moisture is neither so far in as not to be affected by cold, owing to the 3° heat which is present in liquids, nor so slight as to have no force, since the earth is permeated with water. For instance, owing to its becoming cold, one walks and lives upon ice. 35 Why is the sea salty and bitter? Is it because the juices in the sea are numerous? For saltness and bitterness appear at the same time. Why do shells and stones which are in the sea become round? Is it because the breaking off of their extremities * Reading éguordperoy with Y® and AP. 33 36 BOOK. xX Xuk 36 935° equally on every side causes them to assume a round form? For this is the only shape in which the outer surface is the 935” same on all sides, and the sea by moving objects in every direction breaks off their extremities equally. 37. Why is it that sometimes, if one digs a hole near the sea, the first water which enters is drinkable but afterwards it becomes salty?! Is it because the water comes from the 5 sea itself which percolates under the earth? The water which first comes is, therefore, naturally fresh; for fresh water is lighter than salt water, and the sea has some fresh- ness in it, which mingling with the earth tends to come to the surface. But the salt water, owing to its weight and to the fact that it has power to penetrate, is carried downwards. Whether this is so or whether the fresh water flows from ro the mainland into the sea through the earth’s veins, it would naturally float on the surface of the sea which mingles with it;* but, the passages being opened, the salt water, owing to its greater volume, subsequently prevails and makes the whole sea salty. For if the passages are blocked the result is that the inflowing salt water finds another way higher up;* but when they are opened, it is all carried there, just as happens in the veins in the body. — 5 38 Why is it that the sea, which is heavier than fresh water, is more transparent?* Is it because of its fattier composi- tion? Now oil poured on the surface of water makes it more transparent, and the sea, having fat in it, is naturally 20 more transparent. Or is that which is lighter not always more transparent also? For oil itself is lighter than water but not more transparent. Or is the sea not really more transparent, but only apparently so? For fresh water comes from the earth or from streams, and its source sends forth earth also with the water, so that the streams, not being 2; pure, bring down with them the earth and sediment. This then is the reason why fresh water is less transparent. 1 Cp. above, chapter 21. i" 2 Reading atro (W. D.R.) for airy. 8 Reading with the MS. AP ray mépov advo. * Cp. above, chapter 8. 935° PROBLEMATA Why do the bowels of those‘who swim in the sea open 39 readily? For if it is because they take violent exercise, those who run also take very violent exercise, yet their 30 bowels do not open. Or does not every form of exertion cause the bowels to open, but only such exercise as does not cause wasting? Now staying in the sea seems to make men, generally speaking, hungrier and opens the bowels; for the vapour given off by it is both hot and dry. Why does the Lake of Paesus,! of which the water is 4o 35 drinkable, wash and also remove the stains from garments? For water which is fresh washes, but that which is bitter removes stains, and water cannot have both these qualities at the same time. Are stains removed not because the water is bitter, but by the quality of stickiness which has this power? Hence animals’ hoofs have this effect, and any- thing which contains gelatinous matter; and so also any 936% bitter substances which partake of this character do the same. Now in this lake it so happens that the bitter element of the quality of soda has been burnt out, but the fatty and sticky element remains. It is by virtue of this that it removes stains, and it washes because it is fresh. 5 Why does the part of the sea which is calm appear white, gy while that which is agitated appears black? Is it because that which is less visible appears blacker, and water which is in motion is less seen than that which is still? Or is it because that which is transparent is white, while that which is not so is black, and that which is in motion is less 10 transparent ? 1 T.G. renders raca Ninvn (which is omitted by Bonitz from his Index) by Lacus Paesa, and we should probably read Waiva Niyen here with Sylburg. The reference then will be to a lake at Paesus on the left bank of the Hellespont near Lampsacus. See Strabo, p. 589. 936° BOOK Tx LV PROBLEMS CONCERNING HOT WATER I Why is it that, if one is anointed with oil, hot water poured over one seems less hot, in spite of the fact that oil contains heat? Is it because owing to the smoothness caused by the oil the water glides off and sinks in less ? 15 2 Why is it that in the summer the water in wells becomes warm after midday ? Is it because by that hour the heat has mastered the air, whereas before midday the heat is dissolving and putting an end to the cold; but the one does not prevail as soon as the other has ceased, but only after 20 time has elapsed ? 3. Why is it that water, which sometimes becomes hotter than a flame, does not burn wood, whereas the flame does so?! Is it because the flame, and the breath which comes from it, consist of small particles, whereas water is made up of large particles and so does not penetrate? Now flame and the heat from coals owing to their rarity can a5 penetrate and destroy. 4 Why is it that boiling water has not the power to melt, while the stomach possesses this power ?? Is it because the heat which is in the stomach penetrates owing to its rarity, whereas water cannot penetrate because of its density ? Or is it because liquid prevents other things also from melting (for nothing melts in liquid)? In the stomach, however, the 30 liquid flows down into the bladder and so does not prevent the process of melting.” Why is it that the bottom of a vessel containing boiling water does not burn, but one can carry it holding it by the bottom, whereas if the water be removed it burns? Is it 2 Cp. Theophrastus, de /gne, § 4o. DSTA G 3 Reading ov kmAver for ovrw Avet. 936° PROBLEMATA because the heat as it is engendered in the bottom of the 35 vessel is extinguished by the water? Wherefore also sub- stances which can be melted do not melt if any liquid is added to them.' Why is it that water does not boil over so much in6 winter as in summer, although heated not only up to the same temperature but even higher, and although equally 936° hot or even hotter?? Is it because boiling over is due to the rising of bubbles? The water then itself becomes just as hot in winter as in summer,’ but the bubbles cannot rise to the same extent, because the surrounding air is cold, but 5 they rise smaller in size, being compressed by the cold, and soon burst, being broken by the air. They are, therefore, smaller in bulk and fewer in number in the winter, and the contrary in summer. Now boiling over is due to the number and size of the bubbles forming the froth. 10 Why does hot water cause wrinkles, but fire, though it is I hot, not do so? Is it because fire produces breath and so causes swelling (for it distends the skin), whereas it is the curving of the skin which makes wrinkles ? Why is it that the bottoms of vessels in which water is being heated are hotter while the water is still cold?* Is it because, while the water is still cool, the heat is enclosed and driven inwards,° being prevented from making its way out, but, when the water in the vessel becomes thoroughly heated, since the fire no longer holds the heat but expends itself and becomes less, the bottom of the vessel becomes cooler, just as a bath does? For a bath is hotter in winter on 20 than in summer, because the heat is more enclosed in winter than in summer by the surrounding air which is cold. * The words py Wdodos appear hopelessly corrupt, but the right sense is given by T.G., who renders sz guid humoris admittatur. * Punctuating, with Bonitz, od pdvov dpoiws Oeppawduevov adda kal HaAAON, kat Opoiws Oeppdv by Kat éte pG\Nov, The source of this problem is Theophrastus, de Jene, § 16. ® Reading with Bonitz O¢pous for Wixous. “ Cp. above, chapter 5. Pe ae the doctrine of dvrimepicracis of heat and cold see note on 7° 32. BOOK XXIV. 9 936” 9 Why is it that water when it boils does not form a scum, as do pea-soup and lentil-soup? And yet water is lighter than these, and light substances ought to be able to project themselves more easily to a distance. The same 25 thing' happens in the case of silver when it is being purified ; for those who clean out the mint make gains by appropriating the remnants, sweeping up the silver which is scattered about. Is it because the heat causes the scum by vaporizing and subjecting to force anything which Opposes its own natural impetus? Water, therefore, owing 30 to its lightness and rarity is not subjected to force, and so no great heat is collected in it, but the heat which con- tinually passes into it cuts its way through before it can become massed together. But substances which have body in them, like thick soups and silver, since, owing to their weight, they contain much corporeal matter and offer resis- 35 tance,? because they are subjected to violent force as the heat tries to make its way out, form bubbles wherever the heat prevails; for, owing to their density, the heat cannot pass through them, but the density prevails until it is thrown off by the heat which flows into it. The result is a sudden impact, and not a continuous pressure, owing to the heat passing up quickly from below. 10 Why, if substances are moistened in hot water for a 937° short time, do they swell, but, if for a long time, collapse and become wrinkled? Is it because the heat makes a thing liquid instead of solid and produces breath from liquid and rarefies what is dense? At first, therefore, it heats things which are solid and makes them moister, 5 and producing breath from the moisture distends and swells them; but when it heats them still more, it rarefies their outer part,’ so that the vapour is given off, and the drying up of moisture causes their bulk to collapse. Now, as anything collapses, its outer skin shrivels up, and where 10 it shrivels up unevenly, wrinkles are formed. 1 Why are stones formed by hot water rather than by 1 Deleting the comma after ravré. | 2 Placing a comma after ayrar@Oovvra instead of after Bia. 3 Putting the comma after epyaivy instead of after 76 mepu€. 645-25 S 937° PROBLEMATA cold? Is it because a stone is produced from the failure of moisture, and moisture fails more through the operation of heat than of cold, in other words ‘petrifaction is the result 15 of heat, as Empedocles says both rocks and stones come into being through the action of | hot waters?* Or, while it is true that heat petrifies, can petrifaction also take place through cold, because an extremely hard frost consumes the moisture and causes hardening? ‘That cold, pure and simple,? produces this effect is clear from the fact that its excess does so. 20 Why is it that if one has one’s foot in hot water, if the I2 foot is kept still the water appears to be less hot, but hotter if itis moved? Does the same thing happen as in the body, viz. that, when one runs in the wind, the opposing air becomes increasingly colder, and the farther one continues to go* the more one notices it? 25 Why do hot things cool off more in the sun than in the 13 shade? Is it because the lesser heat is destroyed by the greater?° Or is it because in the shade the surrounding cold represses the interior heat and does not allow it to make its way out, producing the same effect as the pouring of cold water produces upon those who are fainting ® (for it 30 encloses the heat and prevents it from escaping); and speaking generally the interior parts of anything are warmer in the winter? But in the sun, since there is nothing which intercepts it, the heat is free to move and vanishes more quickly. Why is it that water heated by the sun is not more 14 35 Wholesome for washing purposes ?? Isit because, owing to the fact that it is cooling, it causes shivering while it is still " Reading 61a for kai. ? Diels, Vorsokr. i,’ p. 211, 31. * For this use of rd dmdas cp. Top. v. 135% 2, where it is opposed to TO padiora, : * Reading with Bonitz dei iay for eiovay. ® This is the doctrine of sip emt mip which occurs so often in the Problems. ° Cp. Theophrastus, #e /ewe, § 15, where the word Aurowuxnract shows that we must read éx@yyoxover, with Bussemaker, here for Ovnokovet. 7 Cp. below, chapter 15. BOOK XXIV. 14 937° upon the body?! Or, while it has this effect, is it unhealthy it used often for washing? For hot water, generally speaking, produces concoction and has a drying effect, whereas cold water has an astringent effect, and so both do good. Therefore cold water and water heated over a fire are both 937° beneficial to those who wash in them; but water heated by the sun owing to the weakness of its heat produces the effect of neither of these, but merely has the effect ot moistening—like the light of the moon.? 15 Why is water which has been heated in the sun not 5 wholesome?* Is it because that which is cooling causes shivering ? 16 Why are the hot waters at Magnesia‘ and at Atarneus® drinkable? Is it because more water pours into the hot water as it flows out, and so its saltness disappears, but its heat remains ? es 17. Why is it that in Magnesia the hot waters ceased to be hot but the water remained salty?" Is it because more cold water from elsewhere was poured at the same time into the springs and extinguished the heat? Now the earth was salty,’ but not hot owing to the abundance of 15 water flowing into it. (A similar process occurs in water which is strained through hot ashes; for the water being strained through the hot ashes cools the ashes and itself be- comes cold, but *is salty and bitter owing to the ashes.) But when the water which was added had become transformed, the heat in the earth for a different reason prevailed over 20 the coldness of the water owing to. its small volume, and hot waters flowed again. 1 Reading due 7o Wiyeo@u cai ere emi rH copate ov. The Latin version of T. G. renders corport adhuc tnsidens. 2 The light of the moon does not heat us because it is not hot enough. 5 Cp. above, chapter 14. ‘ j,e. Magnesia on the Maeander; cp. Strabo, p. 579. > On the west coast of Asia Minor opposite Lesbos. The fact that Aristotle resided for a time at or near Atarneus makes it possible that this problem is Aristotelian (cp. Frag. 625, 158320, 30). 5 6 The sense given by this problem as it stands is not clear and is opposed to that of the preceding chapter. TEpa Strabo, dc ® Reading d¢ with C* (according to Bekker). $2 937” PROBLEMATA Why are waters from hot springs all salty ? Is it because 18 they usually percolate through earth which contains alum! (as is shown by the smell of the water) and has been burnt ? Now the ashes of anything are salty and smell of sulphur. 25 The earth therefore burns the water like a thunderbolt. Many hot springs therefore are due to strokes of thunder- bolts. Why are hot bathing-places sacred? Is it because they 1g are due to two very sacred things, sulphur and the thunder- bolt ? 1 Or, perhaps, ‘vitriol’. 937 BOOK XXV PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH THE AIR 30 I Why is it that pain is caused if the limbs are enclosed in inflated skins? Is it due to the pressure of the air? For just as the air does not yield to pressure applied to the skin from outside but repels it, so the air also presses upon the limbs enclosed within. Or is it because the air is held 35 within by force and is compressed, and so, having naturally an outward impetus in every direction, it presses against the body enclosed within? 2 Why is it that in marshes near rivers the so-called ‘bellowings’ take place, which according to the fable are uttered! by the sacred bulls of the god? That which is 9387 produced is certainly a noise which resembles the roaring cf a bull, so much so that it has the same effect on cows when they hear it as the bellowing of a bull. Is it due to the fact that this phenomenon always occurs wherever rivers stagnate into marshes,” or are driven back by the sea, or 5 give forth wind in unusually large quantities? The reason is that hollows in the earth form, and the water making its way in (for there is always a flow of water in marshy ground of this kind) thrusts the air also through a narrow entrance into a wider hollow, just as a noise like roaring is produced if one makes a sound through the aperture into an empty 10 jar; for it is by a similarly shaped organ that a bull's roaring is produced. Now, if the hollows have irregular forms, a variety of strange noises is produced; for if one takes off the base® of a vessel and rubs it against the 1 Reading févac (W.D.R.) for eva. With the whole passage com- pare Afeteor. 368" 23 ff. , 2 Omitting #) doa €Ay Awvatovra, in which the plural verb with a neuter plural subject and the change to the middle voice are suspicious, and which is probably due to dittography of the preceding clause. 3 givdu€, which by derivation is connected with svOpiy, rvpatos and the Latin fiwdus can hardly mean ‘lid’ (L. and S.}, and must mean = Dalsems 938" PROBLEMATA 15 bottom, drawing it in and out,! it makes enough noise to frighten away wild animals when orchard-watchers employ this device. Why does the air not become moist when it comes into 3 contact with water?? For all other things become moist when they touch water. Is it because the extremities of the air and water meet, but the surface of each remains 20 distinct ?* All other things then are heavier, but the air does not sink below the outer extremity of the water. It therefore touches it, because there is nothing between them; but it does not become wet, because it always remains above the water. Why does calm weather occur most often at midnight 4 and at midday? Is it because calm is immobility of the air, and the air is most at rest when it either has the mastery or 25 is overmastered, and it is in movement when it is struggling ? Now it has the mastery most at midnight and is over- mastered at midday; for at the former time the sun is farthest away and at the latter nearest at hand. Again, the winds begin to blow either about dawn or about sunset ; and the wind which blows at dawn dies down when it is overpowered, and that which blows at sunset dies down 3° when it ceases to have the mastery. Consequently the former dies down at midday, the latter at midnight. Why is it colder when dawn is breaking and it is already 5 early morning than at night, although the sun is nearer to us?* Is it because towards daybreak dew and hoar-frost 35 fall, and both of these are cold? The whole ground then being as it were sprinkled with cold moisture, a process ot cooling takes place. Why is it that in Pontus both intense cold and stifling 6 heat occur? Is it because of the thickness of the air ?° ‘et rpiyer Sut tod Katadyparos has been omitted as a gloss. The word karddnua is otherwise unknown and is probably a corruption of katayparos (the break). > Cp. below, chapter Io. * Omitting ody with Richards. of. c7z., p. 143, where see note. * This problem is treated at greater length in Book viii, chapter 17. ° Cp. above, Book xiv, chapter 13. BOOK XXV. 6 938° For in the winter it cannot be thoroughly warmed, and in the summer, when it is heated, it burns because it is thick. It is for the same reason also that marshy regions are cold 938° in winter and hot insummer, Or is it because of the course of the sun? For in the winter it is far away, and in the summer near at hand. 7 Why is the sky finer at night than by day? Is the sun 5 the cause of wind and disturbance? For these occur when some movement takes place; the cause therefore is the heat. So, when the heat is not present, everything is at rest, and there is more rest when the sun is rising than when it is sinking. And the saying, Have no fear of a cloud from the land,! 10 means that, where there is most movement, there must be least permanence and consistency, that which is trying to hold together being inequable and unable to gain the mastery. And this is what happens on the sea in winter and on land in summer. 8 Why is it that when liquid which fills a jar is poured into skins the jar not only holds the liquid and the skins as well rs but also has room for more liquid? Is it because there is air present in the liquid? This then, when it is in the jar, cannot be given off owing to the size of the jar; for the larger anything is the more difficult it is to press any moisture or air out of it, as can be seen in sponges. But when it is divided up into small portions, it is pressed out 20 of the skin together with the air already there,” so that the space occupied by the air becomes empty ; and so the jar can hold the skins and additional liquid as well. This is more especially the case with wine, because there is more air in wine than in water. Similarly the same vessel can hold the same quantities of ashes and water together as it can hold of each poured in separately. For there are apparently many empty spaces in ashes, and so the water, dS on 1 The whole proverb is given at 947% 7-9. 2 i, e. as the air in the skin is displaced by the liquid which is being poured in, it makes its way out, taking with it any air that there may be in the liquid. 938” a 30 35 939° on PROBLEMATA being thinner,! sinks in more and saturates the ashes, so that they become dense,? because the saturation takes place in one part after another (for a thing always becomes more thoroughly saturated if the process takes place little by little than all at once), and, as this takes place, the ashes gradually sink, at the same time absorbing the liquid because they contain hollows. (But ashcs thrown into water while still hot cleave the water and cause it to evaporate.) And the same thing happens if the water is poured in first and the ashes put in afterwards, so that the water also would seem to contain hollows and empty spaces. Or do the ashes take up the water, and not the water the ashes? For it is only natural that that which is composed of smaller particles should be that which finds its way into something else. (Further, this can be illustrated by an experiment; for when ashes are sprinkled water® is attracted to any spot where they are sprinkled; whereas the contrary would have taken place if it were the water which takes up the ashes.) Or does this process not occur if the water be poured in first and fill the vessel to the brim, but, if any- thing then be added, does it overflow ?* But if the water once overflows and the ashes settle down,” then it does occur ; for it was the ashes which took up the water. There is a parallel to this in the fact that trenches do not hold all the earth which has been dug out of them; for apparently some air occupies the space excavated, and for this reason it does not hold all the earth. Why is it that, though air is denser than light, it can pass through solids?" Is it because light travels in a straight ? Reading Nerrérepov Civ). > Omitting cal after muxrotcdat. 3 Omitting a@dXo with AP. * The argument here is not very clear, but the meaning is apparently something like the following : the fact that when ashes are dropped in an absolutely full vessel the water overflows is no argument against the theory that a vessel can hold the same quantity of water and ashes together as it holds of each separately ; for the ashes when first put in naturally cause an overflow, but, when they become saturated and settle down, there is room left for the amount of water which has over- flowed, just as if earth is dug out of a trench and then replaced it takes some time to settle down to its original level. ° Reading tmroméoy for emnéon. The Latin version renders descen- dertt. ° Cp. above, Bk. xi. 49 and 58. 9 BOOK XXV. 9 939° line only, and so the sight cannot see through porous sub- stances like pumice-stone, in which the pores are irregular, whereas they are not so in glass? The air, on the other hand, is not obstructed, because it does not travel directly through anything through which it passes. 5 1o ©=Why is it that the air becomes cold by touching water but not moist, even though one blows so hard upon water as to cause waves?! That it becomes col« is clear from the change which it undergoes; for the air from water” causes cold. Is it because it is the nature of air to be cold or hot, and it changes by touching anything with which it comes into contact; but it does not also become moist, because it is too light and so never penetrates below the level of the water, but always remains in contact only with the surface, even though it be forced downwards, and the water then recedes still lower, so that the air can never penetrate into its depth? wd (0) b> or 11 = Why is the air from bubbles and the air which comes up from beneath the water never wet? Is it because the moisture is not retained, but the water drops off? The water on the surface of a bubble is also too little to moisten anything. 1 Why is it that air cannot saturate anything, but water can? For water even when it is transformed into air is moist. Is it for the same reason as that for which stone 30 cannot do so? For everything has not this faculty of saturating other things, but only that which is viscous or liquid. 13. (Why is it that an inflated skin floats ?)* Is it because the air in it is carried upwards? For when the skin is empty it sinks; but when jit is inflated, it remains on the surface, because the air supports it. But if the air makes 3; it lighter and prevents it from sinking, why does a skin become heavier when it is inflated? And how is it that (St) Ut 1 Cp. above, chapter 3. * Reading <>) amd t&v Vdarev (Bonitz). * The statement of the problem has fallen out and must be supplied from the Latin version of T.G. which reads: Cvs wtres influté valeant fluctare ? 939° PROBLEMATA when it is heavier it floats, and when it is lighter’ it sinks ? Why is it that the air does not rise upwards?* For if 14 939” the winds are the result of air being moved by heat and it is the nature of fire to rise upwards, the wind ought to travel upwards, since that which sets it in motion rushes upwards and that which is set in motion has a natural tendency to travel in the same direction. As a matter of fact, however, the air obviously travels in an oblique direction.” 5 Why is the hour of dawn colder than the evening ?*15 Is it because the former is nearer to midnight and the latter to midday ? Now midday is the hottest time, because it is nearest to the sun, and midnight the coldest ® for the opposite reason. Why is it that in hot weather the nights are more stifling 16 10 than the days? Is it owing to the absence of wind? For the periodical winds and the ‘forerunners’® blow less at night. Why is it that substances enclosed in inflated skins and 17 closely covered vessels remain uncorrupted ?7 Is it because things which are in motion become corrupt, and all things that are full are without motion, and such skins and vessels are full? 15 Why is it that it is colder when the sky is clear than 18 when it is overcast, though the stars and the heaven are warm?* Js it because in clear weather there is nothing to hold the vapour, but it is diffused everywhere, whereas in cloudy weather it is contained? For the same reason it is colder when the wind is in the North than when it is in the South ; for the South wind attracts cloud, whereas the North ‘ i.e. empty. > It is unnecessary to suppose with Klek that there is a lacuna in the statement of this problem. ° The explanation of this is given in Book xxvi, chapter 48, ad fin. Cp. above, chapter 5 and Book viii, 17. 5 Reading Wouxpérara. Cp. 946° 15. A shorter version of the problem already dealt with in xxii. 4. 8 Cp. below, chapter 21. * i, e. in the clouds. Io & 19 20 21 22 BOOK XXV. 18 wind dispels it, and more evaporation appears to take place when the wind is in the North than when it is in the South, and in winter than in summer. Or is it because of dis- similarity ? Or because vapour is formed when that which is hot cools ? Why is it that a smaller amount of air is warmer than a larger quantity (for confined spaces are always warmer) ? Is it because a larger quantity is subjected to more motion, and motion makes a thing cold? This can be seen from the fact that hot things become cold if set in motion. Why is it that water and earth become corrupt, but air and fire do not? Is it because anything which is corrupted must become hotter,' but there is nothing hotter than fire ?* Or is it because a thing must be chilled before it can be corrupted, but fire is always hot and the air is full of fire ? So nothing becomes corrupted when it is hot, but only when it is chilled. Now earth and water* can become hot and cold. Why is cloudy weather hotter than clear weather ?* Is it because, as the men of old said, the stars are cold? Or is this too absurd a doctrine,’ and is the real reason that in clear weather vaporization takes place? That this is so can be inferred from the fact that, when there is no wind, dew and hoar-frost are formed. When, therefore, the weather is clear, the hot substance, by which the moisture is taken up, is blown about, and so the air becomes cold; for which reason also the moisture which the hot substance lets fall forms dew. But when the weather is cloudy the moisture is contained ; and therefore there is no dew or hoar-frost in 939 20 cS) on 30 35 b cloudy weather. The heat, therefore, remaining in the 940° neighbourhood of the earth makes the weather warm. Why is it that in lofty rooms the air constantly ebbs and flows, especially in calm weather? Is it because the air 1 Reading Oepycrepor for Peppdraroy with Bonitz. 2 And since fire cannot become hotter, therefore it cannot become corrupt. % Omitting «kat anp with AP, ‘ Cp. above, chapter 18. 6 The contrary doctrine, that the stars are hot, is assumed in 1, 16 above. 940° 5 15 PROBLEMATA contains much void in its composition? When, therefore, it begins to flow in, the air inside the room gives way and contracts; and when in course of time this air becomes massed together, the air outside becomes more full of voids and contains much vacant space. Into this space then the air from the room rushes, since it is near at hand, and passes into it, because it is in suspense and the nature of the void cannot resist. So when this happens in many parts of it, the adjoining air follows it owing to the forward impetus ;? and then, since a large quantity of air rushes out,” the space within becomes full of voids, while the air outside is denser and so rushes in again from outside. Thus these two currents continually interchange. * Reading zpéxopw (W. D. RB.) for mpécopw. * Reading é£@ for ¢£wOev. 940° BOOK XXVI PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH THE WINDS 1 Why does the North-last wind (Caecias)! alone of the winds attract the clouds to itself?" Is it because it blows from higher regions? For the parts towards the East are higher than those towards the West,’ as is shown by the 20 _' Caecias does not strictly speaking correspond with our NE. wind, since the quadrants of the Greek compass were divided into three and Boreas [Thracias] [A rges tes | Caecias Zephyrus W. .Apeliot Ergot Hel ubspontva.s) Lips Eurus [Leuconotus] [ Euronotus ] Sa Notus Chart of the winds to illustrate 7od/ems, Bk. xxv. [The names in square brackets are supplied from other treatises. | not four sections as ina modern compass ; Caecias is, therefore, 30° and not 45° north of the East wind. The chart of the Greek winds has been dealt with by Professor D’Arcy Thompson in C. 7., xxxil, p. 49 (1918), who has independently come to the same conclusion as I had previously formed in translating the de AZundo: he proves conclusively that Kaibel and Capelle’s ‘ wind-rose’, which I had adopted when translating the de Ventorum Sitdbus, is wrong, but he was apparently unaware that I had changed my view when translating the de Mundo. 2 €p. chapter 29. The source of both problems is Theophrastus, de Vents, 88 37, 393; cp. also ALeteor. 364” 12. 3 i.e. the earth is conceived of as sloping gradually from E. to W. 940° is) or PROBLEMATA extent and depth of the sea towards the West. Now the North-East wind (Caecias), blowing from above to a contrary direction, describes in its course a line which follows an upward curve in relation to the earth ;’ and falling, as has been said,? upon the western regions of the earth and massing the clouds together as a result of the form of line which it follows, on its return back it thrusts the clouds before it towards itself.* It is the only one of all the winds which does this, because for some the opposing regions are higher,‘ towards which their course, either starting from ° a lower level or proceeding in a straight line, as a result travels in a downward curve® towards the earth,’ so that there can be no return of the wind to its source because it ends its course round the earth, where, besides, there are no clouds.’ The East wind and the other winds which follow a less curving course do not form clouds because they have no moisture. Since, then, it forms no clouds, the effect produced by the East wind is less obvious than that produced by the North-East wind. Why do the North winds occur at a fixed period of the year, whereas the South winds do not ?° Or do South winds occur annually but are they not continuous, because the source of the South wind is far away from us, and we live * Reading kupra (T.G. has comvexum) for xotha in order to give the required sense and to agree with the doctrine of 943 1. KotAa and kupra appear to have changed places here and in 1.28. The meaning here is that the NE. wind, descending from above, sweeps in a circular course up into the sky and thence returns to the point from which it started. ? Nothing has yet been said on this point. , . i. e. to the point from which it started. éd" airdv must be read for €77l QUTOY, * Reading rois pev ivndorepous rods evavrious etvat térous (W.D.R.). ®° Inserting ex, omitted by error in the Teubner text, before rod katobev. * Reading koi\a (T. G. has devexis) for kupta; see note on |. 22. " Reading €xovcar for €xovons and deleting the comma after cupBaiver. T.G. renders guae versus, ut aut de imo aut e directo flatus feratur devexus, terram versus necessumt sit, * Reading 7@ rept rv yyy (cp. 943 37) exe ry TeNeUTHY THs popas, ev @ otde védn eati (W.D.R.). The fact that the wind blows below the cloud level gives an additional reason why it cannot form clouds. Tept tiv yyy appears to have been displaced from 1. 30 by an emblema from |. 29 and to have found its way into 1. 31. * The source of this problem is Theophrastus, of. cit., Sir. BOOK XXVI. 2 940° close to the North wind? Further, the annual North winds blow when the air is still (for they blow in summer); 940° whereas the South winds occur in the spring, when the region of the air is less stable. Again, the South wind is moist, and the upper region of the atmosphere is unfavour- able to moisture ; so any moisture which is formed in it! is quickly dissolved. Also moisture is erratic; and so the South wind, because it does not remain in the same place, 5 helps to set up changes in the movement of the air. And since the air does not remain in the same place when it moves, other winds are consequently set up; for a wind is a movement of air. 3. Why does the South wind blow after a hoar-frost ?? Is it because hoar-frost occurs when concoction takes place, and after concoction and cleansing a change to the opposite 10 condition takes place ? Now the South wind is the opposite of the North wind. For the same reason also the South wind blows after snow. In a word, both snow and hail and rain and all such processes of cleansing are a sign of concoction; therefore after rain and similar storms the 1; winds fall. 4 Why do the alternating winds blow?* Is it for the same reason as causes the change of current in straits? For both sea and air are carried along until they flow ; then, when the land-winds encounter opposition and can no longer advance, because the source of their motion and 20 impetus is not strong, they retire in a contrary direction. 5 Why do the alternating winds come from the sea? Is it because the sea is close at hand? Or is it because the alternating wind is the opposite of the land-wind and as it were the reverse of it? Now the land-wind is the breeze which blows from the land towards the sea, and the alternating wind is the reflux of the land-wind, so that it must necessarily come from the sea. Or is it because * the » 5 1 Reading with Bekker atr@ for aire. 2 The source of this probiem is Theophrastus, of. czt., § 50. 3 This and the following problem are derived from Theophrastus, op. cit., § 26. * Reading #) da xrA., omitting 7 Oadarra eott. 940°” PROBLEMATA air which has been set in motion collects out at sea? The reason of its not collecting on land and of its being thrown back! is the fact that the sea is in a hollow, and air, like water, flows always into the deepest hollow it can find. 30 Why do cloud-winds? stop sooner when rain falls? Is it 6 because, when it rains, the hollows of the cloud, in which the source of the wind is formed, collapse ? Why are not the same winds everywhere rainy ?* Is it 7 because the same winds do not everywhere blow against mountains, but different winds are opposed to different mountains? For example, when the winds blow laboriously against steep mountains, the clouds are more likely to form there, since the wind cannot push them farther forward ; and when the clouds form and are compressed, they burst. ey) ur 941* Whyare sunsets, if they are clear, a sign of fine weather ; 8 if they are disturbed, a sign of stormy weather? Is it because a storm occurs when the air is dense and thick? When, therefore, the sun prevails, it breaks up and clears the air; but, if it is itself overpowered, an overcast sky results. If, therefore, the density is excessive, a storm occurs as soon as the day dawns; whereas if it is weaker but not completely overpowered, the: denseness which forms is driven towards the setting sun and remains there, because the air round the earth is thicker? than the storm. And the rest of the air quickly densifies, because 10a beginning of the process has already been made and there is a rallying point to receive and collect anything which comes to it,’ the same thing occurring in the air as happens in a rout, where, if one man makes a stand, the rest also remain firm. Hence the sky some- times becomes quickly and suddenly overcast. When, ue * Omitting dmv as a dittography of alriov, > Cp. de Mundo 394” 17. _ * Cp. Theophrastus, of. c7#.,§5. This problem is more fully treated in chapter 56. * Reading waxirepov for rayéraror, the comparative and superlative being frequently confused in the MSS. ° Omitting the meaningless xaOdmep dpOpos. 9 fe) II BOOK XXVI. 8 therefore, there is a disturbed sunset, it is a strong indica- tion that the sun has not got the mastery over the density, though it has struggled long against it, so that probably ! further condensation has taken place. This is a less alarm- ing symptom when it occurs after a storm than in calm weather ; for in the former circumstances it is probably the remnant of a storm, but in the latter the beginning of condensation. What is the origin of the saying, Boreas blows not at night when once the third sun hath arisen ?? Is it because the breezes which come from the north are weak when they blow at night? A proof that the amount of air which is set in motion is not great is the fact that they blow at a time when there was a small amount of heat; and a small amount of heat was moving a small amount of air. Now all things terminate in multiples of three,* and things which are very small terminate at the end of the first triad; and that is what this wind does. Why does the North wind blow more frequently than the South wind?* Is it because the North wind, being near the inhabited portion of the world, attracts our notice in spite of its short duration (for it is with us as soon as it begins to blow), whereas the South wind does not reach us, because it blows from a distance? Why does the South wind blow as much’ on winter nights as on winter days? Is it because during the night the sun is near the southern region, and the nights there are warmer than are the days in the north? Much air, there- fore, is set in motion and not less than by day; but the } Reading eixds for eikéras. ; 2 Cp. below, chapter 14. The source of both chapters is Theo- phrastus, of. cit., § 49. ; d 3 Cp. de Caelo 268710 xabdrep yip dace kai ot Wvéaydpevor, 1d av Kal Ta TaYTA ToOls TpLoly prorat. 4 Cp. below, chapter 15, and Theophrastus, of. cit.,§ 9. | 5 Reading ody) frrov, which is demanded by the logic of the problem. Whereas North winds blow less at night than by day (chapter 9), South winds blow at least as much by night as by day. 645-25 At 941 TS 20 ais) 30 3D a 94I* PROBLEMATA warmer days prevent the wind from blowing more strongly by drying up the moisture.’ Why does the South wind blow at the time of the Dog- 12 star, and why does this happen regularly like any other - natural phenomenon ?? Is it because the southern regions are warm, since the sun is not far* away, and so the evapora- tion is considerable? The South winds would * blow fre- 941” quently if it were not for the annual winds; as it is, these prevent their blowing.’ Or is it because a sign occurs® at the setting and rising of any star, and especially of the Dog-star? It is clear that winds blow most at the time of and after its rising, and since it causes stifling heat, it is s only natural that the hottest winds should be set in motion when it rises; and the South wind is hot. And since things are most accustomed to pass from contraries into contraries, and the ‘forerunners’,’ which are northern winds, blow before the rising of the Dog-star, the South wind naturally blows after the Dog-star appears, since a sign then occurs, 1o and the occurrence of a sign‘ at the time when stars rise means a change in the air. Now all winds change either into their contraries or into those on their right; but since the North wind cannot ® change into the winds on its right, the only thing left for it to do would be to change into a South wind. Now on the fifteenth day after the winter 15 Solstice the wind is in the south, because the solstice marks as it were a fresh start and the sun sets in motion air which 1 Cp. Theophrastus, of. ci¢., § 49, ad fin. * The source of the first explanation offered is Theophrastus, of. ci¢., 48. The problem is repeated in chapter 32. * Reading rov yAlov (ot) méppw dvros, cp. Theophrastus, /.¢., alrcov & Sri Pepa ra Kétw, rod HAlov maportos, dare yiveTat TOAAH atpls. * Reading wodXot dy émveor. ° There should be a full stop in place of a comma after ckwAvover. The rest of this chapter occurs in the MSS. under chapter 32, whence the editors have transferred it to this chapter as dealing with the same problem. © onpaiver and emrionuaiver (1. 9) are used impersonally as equivalent to onpetdy cori, The Latin szgzzfcat has the same force, cp. Columella, ix. 2 Stderum occasus tempestates facit, interdum tantum significat. " So called because they precede the Etesian winds (946* 15). * Reading ereid}) emurnpaiver pér, emirehdovar S€ trois dorpors TO emon- flatvery €ote KTA, * Reading émdekious (ov) peraSidXer (Bonitz); the Latin version of T. G. inserts the negative, BOOK XXVI. 12 941 is nearest to it! and at this solstice it is near the south. Just as, therefore, when it sets the region of the east in motion it stirs up the East winds, so when it sets in motion the southern region it stirs up the South winds. It does not do this immediately after the solstice, because the changes which it sets up extend at first over a very small area, but only on the fifteenth day, because this date corresponds to the first sensible impression made by the change ; for the said date is simply the most significant part of a whole. i=) fe) 13. Why are the days most changeable during the period of Orion, and why is there then such variability in the wind?? Is it because during a period of change all things are always most indeterminate, and Orion rises at the beginning of autumn and sets in the winter, so that, since there is not yet one settled season, but one is coming on and the other coming to an end, the winds must therefore necessarily be unsettled, because those of each season are 30 passing into one another? And Orion is said to be dangerous both in his setting and in his rising owing to the uncertainty of the season; for it must needs be full of confusion and inconsistency. » ur 14 Why does the North wind which blows at night cease on the third day?* Is it because it comes from a small and 35 weak source and the third day marks the crisis? or is it because it expends itself all at once like the ‘cloud-winds ’,* and therefore quickly dies down again ? 15 Why do the North winds blow more than the other winds?® Is it owing to the fact that the inhabited portion of the earth is near the region of the north, which is high g42° and outside the tropics and full of snow, which never leaves some of the mountains? As, therefore, frozen matter is usually melting there, a wind often arises, and this wind is the North wind which comes from the region of the pole. Reading kad’ airév for kar’ adrny (cp. 944* 22). The source of this problem is Theophrastus, of. c/t., § 55. Cp. above, eek See above, 940” 30, and de ALundo, 394” 17. Cp. above, soe 10, aor © WP T 2 942° 5 ie) 15 20 i>} “Jt PROBLEMATA Why do the South winds blow during winter and at the 16 beginning of spring and the end of the autumn,' and why are they boisterous and whirling in their course and why are they cold to the inhabitants of Libya in like manner as the North winds are to us?” Is it because, the sun being near, the winds must necessarily be set in motion? Now during the winter the sun travels towards the south, and at the beginning of the spring and at the end of autumn it is giving forth heat; whereas during the summer the sun travels towards the north and leaves those other regions. The South wind is hot, because it mingles its breath with the air in the region of Libya, which is hot; and so it is boisterous * and makes the summer rainy, sweeping down on the sea. Why does the South wind cause evil odours? Is it17 because it makes bodies moist and hot, and they are then most liable to corruption? South winds, however, which come from the sea are good for plants—for the South wind reaches the Thriasian Plain in Attica from the sea*—and the reason is that it is cooled before it arrives. Now mildew is caused by moisture which is hot and comes from without. Why does wind usually occur before eclipses, at nightfall 18 before midnight eclipses and at midnight before those which occur at dawn? Is it because the heat which comes 5 from the moon becomes faint, because its course is already getting near the earth, and when it is quite near the eclipse will take place? Now when the heat, by which the air is held back and kept still, is set free, the air begins to move again and a wind springs up later in time according as the eclipse is later.’ ' Cp. Theophrastus, of. c’7., § to. * This is dealt with in chapter 49. * Reading peyadoxtpor (dv) (Platt). * Reading ex Oaddrrns yap 6 véros (for adtois) rpoominret kal THs *ATTUKAS TO Optacio medlw* airioy & Ore (for Sidrt) krA. Unless 6 véros is read for avrois there is no subject for mpoonimre: ; cp. the Latin version, sam et Thriasio campo terrae Atticae auster de mari occurrit. ° The sense (cp. above, ll. 23, 24 dxpdvuxov ... rav €owv) demands some such reading as 6yrairepov, ris ekNelews dyrcaire pov (ovens). BOOK XXVI. 19 19 Why is the South wind rainy not when it is beginning 20 2I but when it is ending?! Is it because it collects the air from a distance? For the rain comes when the South wind masses the air together, and it masses the air together only after it begins to blow. Or is it because, when the South wind begins to blow, the air is still hot, because it comes from a hot region, but in course of time it becomes cool, and then tends to become massed into rain ? Why is it that the South wind, when it is less strong, brings clear weather, but, when it is strong, brings clouds and lasts longer ?? Is it, as some say, owing to the source from which it comes? For if it comes from a weaker source it brings clear weather, but if it starts from a stronger source it brings clouds. Or is it because it is weaker when it begins, so that it does not propel much air, but in the end it usually becomes strong? Hence comes the proverb, When the South wind begins and when Boreas ceases his blowing.” Why is it that in the winter tae winds come forth from the east, but in the summer also from the west ?* Is it because, when the sun no longer prevails, the air flows freely? When, therefore, the sun sinks, it leaves clouds behind it, which cause the West winds, and anything which it carries with it to the inhabitants of the southern hemisphere becomes an East wind. And, contrariwise, when it sinks in the southern region of the earth, it will cause West winds for the inhabitants of that region and East winds in our part of the world from the air which accompanies it. lor this reason too, if it finds another wind blowing, that wind becomes stronger when the sun rises, because it adds some- thing to it. 1 Cp. Theophrastus, of. cit, § 7. pide ® Cp. below, chapter 38, and Theophrastus, of. ciZ., $9 6, 7. 3 The complete proverb is «d mdeiv dpxopevov, &c.; cp. below, 945° 29. er. § The source of this problem is Theophrastus, of. c/¢., § 47. The subject is treated more fully in chapter 54 below. a 942 30 35 b 942 942 PROBLEMATA Why are hounds least able to find the scent when a West 22 wind is blowing? Is it because it disperses the scent most owing to the fact that of all the winds it blows most 15 continuously and down on to the earth ? 20 2 3 3 5 [e) La) Why, when there are shooting stars, is it a sign of 23 wind?! Is it because they are carried along by the wind, and the wind occurs where they are, before it reaches us? For this reason also the wind rises in that quarter from which the stars are set in motion. Why is it that of all the winds the West wind drives the 24 largest clouds?? Is it because it blows from the open sea and over the deep, so that it collects clouds from a large area? Why are the winds strongest which are at their ending ?* 25 Is it because when they expend themselves all at once, what remains is very little ?+ Why is it that, if the South-West wind (Lips) ° blows 26 about the time of the equinox, rain results? Is it because the sun sets the winds in motion from any part of the universe in which it is? Hence the succession of the winds corresponds to the course of the sun. Now since the equinox is the boundary between winter and summer, when it happens that the sun, according to the equinox as it appears to us, has passed the exact boundary or falls short of it and is rather in the wintry region, the result is that the winds from that region blow, of which the first is the South-West wind (Lips), which is naturally moist. Now when the sun is rather in the wintry region of the universe and stirs up the winds there, the result is that the functions of winter come into operation; one of which is wet weather. Again, since the equinox is as it were winter and summer Cp. Theophrastus, of. czz., § 36. The source of this problem is Theophrastus, of. czt., § 42. The source of this problem is Theophrastus, of. cit., § 36. And therefore they come to an end. Xourdv should be read for the meaningless Jeppdv from Theophrastus, ¢.¢., drav yap a@pdor eumvetowar, pukpov ylyverat TO Nouv. $ Lips does not correspond exactly to our SW. wind, being 30° and not 45° south of the West wind. See note on 94o0* 18. 1 2 3 4 BOOK XXVI. 26 942” equally balanced, if anything is added to either one of them it causes a distinct inclination in one direction, just as happens in the case of equally balanced scales. But, since the South-West wind (Lips) is of the wintry order 943° and naturally moist, its addition at the equinox causes an inclination towards winter and rainy weather; for rain is the wintry weather most akin to the wind that has begun to blow. 27 Why are the South wind and the South-East wind (Eu- 5 rus),' which are warmer than their respective contraries, the North wind and the West wind, more rainy, although water is engendered from the air by cold? For it is not true that the clouds form because the North wind thrusts them away from our part of the world; for the West and South- East winds both alike—for they are similarly at the sides of the world*—drive away clouds from the quarter from which they blow, as also do all the other winds. Is it 10 because the more the heat exists outside, the more the cold is driven within? Or is it due in some degree to the quarter from which they blow that certain winds bring clear weather? For the South-East wind rises from the dawn (and the region is warm), while the West wind is situated towards the evening.’ But is there not a further reason, namely, that air, like water,’ cools most quickly and thoroughly when it is previously heated? The air then brought by the South-East wind arrives warm from the rising sun, as does that brought by the South wind from the midday sun; when, therefore, they reach the colder region, they quickly condense and become massed into rain. And the South-East wind has a greater tendency to my 5 1 Eurus does not correspond exactly with our SE. wind, being only 30° south of the East wind (see note on 940* 18). 2 rAdyoe is contrasted with dvOev and kdrwdev (north and south). Cp. Aleteor. 377° 29. 3 Reading dm’ jots eoriv’ be Se 7 xopa (deppn)* mpos (Se) €amepav keira Cébupos. Se 7) XHpa can only refer to az’ nois ; it is therefore impossible to take it with mpds éomépay, which must belong to ¢epupos. We must therefore suppose that something has fallen out after 75« d« ) xepa, apparently Oepyy, cp. below, 1.17. Something may similarly have fallen out between kat and (épupos. The Latin version of T. G, simply renders, eurus namgue ex ort, favonius ex occasu adventat, 4 Cp. ALeteor. 348» 30 ff. 943" PROBLEMATA 20 form rain, because it brings the air more directly from the sun and equally hot; but the South wind is rainy as it ceases to blow, because the first air that is brought comes cold from the sea, whereas the last air, which is very warm, is brought! from the land. Or is there not a further reason, namely, that the South wind is stronger as it ceases a5 to blow (hence the proverb applied to it, ‘ When the South 30° La5) 943 wr tn wind begins... .’2), and stronger winds are colder, and so the South wind masses the clouds together at the end of its duration?® Is not this why it is more rainy then than when it first begins to blow? Why do the winds, though they are cold, cause dryness ? Is it because the colder winds cause evaporation? But why should they do so more than the sun? Is it because they carry off the vapour, whereas the sun leaves it where it is and consequently causes more moisture and less dryness? Why does the North-East wind (Caecias) * alone of all the winds attract the clouds towards itself,’ as the proverb has it, ‘ Drawing it to himself, as Caecias draws clouds’®? For the other winds simply drive forward the clouds from the quarter from which they blow. Is this phenomenon to be attributed to the fact that the contrary wind blows at the same time? But would not this have been obvious, and is it not more likely that the North-East wind naturally follows a circular course? The other winds therefore blow round the earth, but the North-East wind (Caecias) 7 has the concave side of its course towards the heavens and not towards the earth, and so, blowing towards its source, it attracts the clouds to itself. Why is it that the wind blows cold in the early morn- ing from rivers but not from the sea?’ Is it because the Reading xopiferar for xopicer. The complete hexameter is given at 945% 29. Cp. chapters 20 and 38. See note on 940° 18. ° Cp. above, chapter f. Reading dove for the sake of the metre instead of éamep, cp. Jleteor, 364° 13 (Nauck, Lag. Trag. Adesp. 50). ' Reading rovr (W.D. R.) for roize. * This problem also occurs in Book xxiii, chapter 16. 1 2 3 4 6 28 29 30 BOOK XXVI. 30 943” sea extends over open spaces, but rivers are in narrow places? The breeze, therefore, from the sea is dispersed over a wide area and is consequently weak ; whereas the breeze from a river is carried along in a mass and is stronger and therefore naturally appears colder. Or is the reason other than this, namely, that the rivers are cold, but the sea is neither hot nor cold? Now a breeze or exhalation is due to the heating or cooling of liquids ;! for whichever of these two processes they undergo, evaporation takes place, and, when water evaporates, the resultant air is set in motion, and this is a breeze. That which is produced from cold liquids naturally blows cold, while that which blows from very hot liquids cools and becomes cold.?_ One would therefore find that all the rivers are cold, but the sea is neither very hot nor very cold. That which blows from it therefore is not cold, because the sea is not itself very cold, nor does it cool quickly because 20 the sea is not very hot. ° ~ 5 31 Why is the West wind always considered to bring fair weather and to be the pleasantest of the winds?* So, for instance, Homer says that in the Elysian Plains Ever the breezes blow of the Zephyr.* Is it because in the first place it has an equable tempera- ture? For it is neither hot like the winds from the south and east, nor cold like that from the north, but is’ on the 25 boundary between the cold and the hot winds; and, being near to them both, it partakes of their qualities, and is consequently temperate and breathes most of spring. Furthermore, the winds change either into their contraries or into those on their right ;° blowing therefore after the North wind (for the west is on the right of the north’), it 39 enjoys a good reputation, as being mild as compared with 1 Reading Pvuxopevav (ray typaey), cp. 933% 36. Cp. 943" 15 and note. The same problem is dealt with in chapter 55 below. Hom. Od. iv. 567, where, however, the fextus receptus reads AXN alel Zebiporo Avy) mvelovras ayras "Oxeavos avinow. ® Reading eori for ent, cp. 946” 22. sk ©) oPaKey- BA Co This contradicts the doctrine of 94112 as emended by Bonitz 2 3 4 a 943° PROBLEMATA an inclement wind. Also as soon as wintry weather ceases, fine weather usually follows; and the North wind is a wintry wind, [The East wind,! though it lies between the warm and the cold winds, partakes less of them; for, when 35 it blows, it sets in motion the winds towards the south (for when it changes it does so in that direction), but though it sets them in motion it does not mingle with them. The West wind is set in motion by the South winds, and when it 944° blows it sets the North winds in motion; for there the suc- cession of the winds ceases. Hence the West wind, consti- tuting as it does the end of some winds and the starting-point of others, justly is and is considered to be a pleasant wind. | Why does the South wind blow at the time of the Dog- 32 ’star?? Is it because a sign occurs® at the setting or rising of any star, and especially of the Dog-star? It is clear then that the wind blows most at the time of and after its rising. And since it causes stifling heat, it is only natural that the hottest winds should be set in motion when it rises; and the South wind is hot. And since, &c. (as 941” 6-23). 1o Why does the West wind blow towards evening and not 33 in the early morning ?* Is the sun at its rising and setting usually the cause of breezes? For when it concocts and dissolves the air, which is moist, by thoroughly heating it, it dissolves it into breath; and if the air is full of breath, it becomes still more evaporated by the sun. When, there- 15 fore, the sun is in the east, it is far away from the West wind, for the latter blows from the setting sun; but when the sun is already near its setting, the breath is then thoroughly dissolved, and from midday onwards and towards evening the sun is most suitably situated for heating and dissolving the air. It is for this reason also ao that the East wind begins to blow in the early morning; for since the air above the earth becomes charged with ‘ The remainder of the chapter does not occur in the best MSS. It certainly contradicts the doctrine just stated that winds change into those on their right, and in general it does not give satisfactory sense. The passage occurs again in chapter §5, where it is more relevant. > Cp. above, chapter 12 and note. 3 See note on 941? 2. * The same problem is treated in the first part of chapter 35 below. BOOK XXVI. 33 944° moisture during the night and owing to its weight approaches the earth, the sun from dawn onwards dis- solves it and sets in motion first the air which is nearest to itself. Now the East wind get its name Apeliotes because it is the wind which blows from the rising sun.! 34 Why is it that when the sun rises the winds both rise 25 and fall? Is it because a wind is the movement either of the air or of moisture carried up? Now this movement, when it is only slight, is quickly absorbed by the sun, so that no wind occurs; but when it is greater, the movement is increased when the sun rises, for the sun is a source of movement. 30 35 Why does the West wind blow in the evening?? Is it because all the winds blow when the sun disperses the moisture? For the moisture being already in a mass, the power of heat, when it approaches it, concocts it.*? Now the West wind blows from the setting sun; it is only natural then that it should rise in the evening, for then the sun 35 reaches the quarter proper to that wind. The North and the South winds are the most frequent of winds,* because, when one contrary is overcome by its direct contrary, it is least able to continue,’ whereas it is better able to resist a wind blowing against it from an angle.” Now the South and the North winds blow from 944° regions on either side of the sun’s course, while the other winds blow rather in a straight line with it. 36 Does the wind come from a source, as water does, and is it unable to rise to a higher level than that source, or is this 5 i.e. the name Apeliotes is derived from amd lov. Cp. above, chapter 33. Reading exmérrec (cp. above, I1, 12, 13) for the meaningless e£anret. * The latter part of the chapter deals with quite a different subject from the former portion. It is, indeed, quite possible that the Latin version of T.G., which renders, Cur aguztlo et auster saepissime spirant 2? An guia, &c., translates a better reading, and that a new problem should begin here: ‘ Why are the North and the South winds the most frequent of all the winds? Is it because, &c.’ 5 And passes into its contrary, e.g. the North wind becomes the South wind and wice versa (cp. above, 941” Io ff.). 6 Cp. Theophrastus, of. czt., § 2. e 2 is) 944 10 i or 20 25 PROBLEMATA not so? And does it come from a single point or from a wider area? There are indeed in the wind certain similarities to that which seems to occur in water; for water flows faster when it travels downhill, whereas it stagnates on flat and level! ground, and the winds act similarly, for on promontories and high ground the air is always in motion, whereas in hollows it is often at rest and there is acalm. Moreover on exceedingly high mountains there is no wind at all—on Mount Athos, for example, amongst others, as is proved by the fact that offerings which persons sacrificing leave there one year are, So it is said, found there still in the following year. It is clear then that the course of the wind starts as it were from a source of some kind.? It cannot, therefore, rise any higher. Hence the above phenomenon occurs on high mountains, to which what happens to water would be a close parallel; for apparently neither a strong flow of water nor a violent wind is found in high mountains. Why is it that when the South wind blows the sea 37 becomes blue, but when the North wind blows it becomes dark ?? Is it because the North wind disturbs the sea less, and that which is less disturbed appears to be all black ? Why do the South winds when they blow gently cause no overclouding, but when they become strong overcloud the sky?* Is it because, when they blow gently, they cannot thrust many clouds along?° They therefore cover only a small area with cloud; but, when they blow strongly, they thrust along many clouds, and therefore seem to cause more overclouding. Why is the North wind strong when it begins to blow, but weak as it ceases, whereas the South wind is weak when it begins, but strong as it ceases?" Isit because the North wind is near to us and the South wind distant? The former then, when it begins, blows immediately in one part of the * Reading 6pad@ with X8, AP. * Cp. Alefeor. 360% 27. * This problem is translated word for word by Aulus Gellius, ii. 30, as from Aristotle’s Books of Problems. * Cp. above, chapter 20. : Reading dwwéeiv (W.D.R.) for woteiv ; cp. 1. 29. * Cp. below, chapters 41 and 45, and Theophrastus, of. c7¢., § 5. 38 39 40 41 42 43 BOOK XXVI. 39 world, whereas the beginning of the latter becomes dispersed 944 owing to the long time it takes to travel, and little of its 35 first breath reaches us; and we feel the end of the North wind, but that of the South wind not at all. It is, therefore, only natural that the North wind should be weak as it ceases (for the end of all things is weak), while the South wind is not weak at its close, since we do not feel its ending at all. Why do alternating winds blow where there are bays, but not where there is a wide expanse of open sea? Is it because the wind, when it pours into the bays, is less broken up and travels practically in a collected mass, whereas over open expanses of sea the land-winds tend to be broken up as they begin to flow, and when they move the same thing happens to them, because they are free to travel in many directions? For an alternating wind is the reflux of a land-wind.! What is the origin of the saying, When the South wind begins and when Boreas ceases his blowing?” Is it because the North wind, owing to the fact that we live near it and our habitation is towards the pole, immediately blows strongly, for it is with us as soon as it begins ? Hence, as it ceases, it blows pleasantly ; for it then blows weakly. The South wind, on the other hand, because it is far away, reaches us later in greater strength. Why is it that men feel heavier and weaker when the wind is in the south?" Is it because moisture becomes abundant instead of scanty, being melted by the heat, and moisture, which is heavy, takes the place of breath, which is light, and under these conditions men’s strength becomes languid ? Why are men hungrier when the wind is in the north than when it is in the south? Is it because the North winds are colder ? } Reading droyéas (W. D. R.). Cp. chapters 39 and 45. The complete proverb is ed mAciv apyopevov, &c. (cp. 1. 29). ; 3 A longer version of this problem occurs in Book i. 24. b 945° 5 _ 10) 945° PROBLEMATA Why -does the South wind not blow in Egypt itself in 44 2o the regions towards the sea nor for the distance of a day and a night’s journey inland,! while in the regions beyond Memphis and for the distance of a day and a night’s journey it blows freshly; and does not blow to the west for the distance of two days’ and two nights’ journey, while to the east the South-West wind (Lips)? blows? Is it because Egypt in its lower regions is hollow, so the South wind a5 passes over above it, but to the south and farther away the regions are loftier ? Why is it that the South wind is weak when it begins 45 to blow, but becomes stronger as it ceases, while with the North wind the contrary is the case, hence the proverb, Sail when the South wind begins and when Boreas ceases his blowing ?? ° 30 Is it because we dwell rather towards the pole than towards the midday sun, and the North wind blows from the pole, while the South wind blows from the midday sun? It is only natural, therefore, that the North wind, when it begins, immediately attacks with violence the regions nearer to it, and afterwards transfers its violence to the dwellers farther south. The South wind, on the contrary, when it begins, presses upon those who dwell towards the midday sun, and, when it has passed them by, blows freshly upon those who dwell towards the pole. 3 or What is the origin of the saying, 46 Straightway the winter comes, if the South wind call to the North wind ?# Is it because it is the nature of the South wind to collect * clouds and much rain? When therefore the North wind 945° blows under these conditions, since there is abundant * The source of this problem is Theophrastus, of. cit., § 8. > Lips is strictly speaking slightly to the north of the SW. wind, being only 30° south of the West wind, see note on 940 18. * Cf, above, chapters 39 and 41. There should be a question mark after Bopeao in place of a comma. * Cp. Theophrastus, of. cit., § 46. ® Reading ovvaipeiv; T. G. renders colligat. BOOK XXVI. 46 945° material, the North wind freezes it and brings on the winter. Hence the saying, When Boreas findeth the mire, soon cometh the season of winter. Now mud and rain in general are usually, if not invariably, due to the South wind. 47, Why does the North wind follow quickly upon the South 5 wind, but not the South wind upon the North wind?! Is it because the North wind arrives from near at hand, but the South wind from a distance, since our habitation is towards the pole? 48 Why is it that the winds are cold, although they are due to movement caused by heat?? Is movement caused by heat not invariably hot, but only when it occurs in a certain 10 manner? If it comes forth * in a mass, it burns with its heat the very thing which emits it; but if it passes out gradually through a narrow space, it is itself hot, but the air which is set in motion by this process completes the movement in accordance with whatever was its original nature. This can be seen in the mouth;° for there is a saying that from 1; the same organ we breathe both hot and cold," but this is untrue, since ail that proceeds from the mouth is hot, as is shown by the fact that it appears hot if the hand is placed close to the mouth. It is the manner in which it comes forth which makes the difference. For if in yawning we emit breath from a wide opening, it appears hot because we can feel it; but if it be emitted through a narrow opening, being more violent, it impels the air in its imme- 20 diate neighbourhood, which in its turn impels the adjoining air. If the air is cold, its movement is also cold. May not the same thing happen also in the winds, and their first movement be through a narrow channel and then set in 1 The source of this problem is Theophrastus, of. ci/., § 9. 2 The source of this problem is Theophrastus, of. c/t., §§ 19-20. 3 Reading, with Theophrastus, éxminry for éuminry. * i.e. temperature. ® Reading orduatos for cparos (cp. Theoph. § 20). ® Cp. Aesop, fad. 64 (ed. Halm). 945 PROBLEMATA motion! the adjoining air, and then other air begin to rush onwards? So inthe summer the winds are hot, in winter a5 they are cold, because in each case this is the temperature of the air which is already there; for that the air does not follow this course because it is either set in motion by itself or overpowered by the heat, is clear not only from the fact that it heats the winds when there is more heat in it, but also because it was originally being carried upwards. For 30 fire is of this nature; whereas cold naturally travels down- wards. The winds move horizontally and for good reason ; for since the heat presses upwards and the cold downwards and neither prevails, and the air cannot remain still, it is only natural? that its motion should be sideways. 35 Why are the South winds cold in Libya as the North winds 49 are with us?* Is it primarily because the sources of these wi as nds are respectively nearer to us and to them? For if, we have already said,‘ the winds pass through a narrow channel, they will be colder to those who are nearer to them owing to the violence of their movement; for when 946° their movement proceeds farther, they become dispersed. Hence the North winds are cold in our part of the world, because we are nearer to them and dwell quite near the pole. Why is it that those South winds which are dry and do 50 § no un t bring rain cause fever?’ Is it because they engender natural moist heat in the body? For they are by nature moist and hot, and this causes fever, which is due to a combined excess of these two things. When, therefore, the South winds blow under the influence of the sun without bringing rain, they engender this condition in us ;° whereas, when they bring rain with them, the rain cools us. 1 2 3 5 For this meaning of S.adepo cp. Soph. Trach. 323. Reading efkds for efkdrws, cp. 941* 16 and note. Cp. 942° 7. ‘ In ll. 22 ff. above. This chapter (the source of which is Theophrastus, of. cé¢., § 7) is partly identical with i. 23. 6 TAU Reading ravrny thy diddeow rood: (from 8624 21) for the corrupt Thy Thy Take, BOOK XXVI. 51 946° 51 Why do the periodical winds always blow at the season 10 at which they do blow! and with the force with which they blow?? And why do they cease at close of day and not blow during the night? Is this due to the fact that the melting of snow by the sun ceases towards evening and at night? Now these winds blow in general when the sun begins to prevail and melt the northern ice. When the ice begins to melt, the ‘ forerunners’ blow; when it is already melting, the periodic winds blow. Ur 52 Why is the West wind at once the gentlest of winds and also cold, and why does it blow mainly at two seasons, namely, spring and autumn, and towards evening, and usually in the direction of the land?’ Is it cold because it 20 blows from the sea and from extended areas? It is less cold indeed than the North wind, because it blows from evaporated water and not from snow; but it zs cold, because it blows either after the winter, when the sun is only just beginning to prevail, or in the autumn, when the sun no longer has power. For it does not have to wait for its proper matter,* as it would if it were a land-wind, but 25 wanders freely, because it has travelled over water.’ For the same reason it blows evenly; for it does not blow from mountains or from forcibly melted matter, but flowing gently as through a channel. For the regions towards the north and south are mountainous; but towards the west there is neither mountain nor land but the Atlantic Sea, so that it travels in the direction of the land. Further, it 30 blows towards evening owing to the quarter from which it comes; for the sun then approaches that quarter. It ceases at night because the movement set up by the sun dies down. 1 The form rairyyv, which Ruelle reads, does not exist ; the MSs. read ratrip. 2 The source of this problem is Theophrastus, of. czt., § 11. $ The source of this problem is Theophrastus, of. cit., §§ 38, 40, 41. 4 Reading UAnv, cp. 947% 2, 3. The iacuna in Theophrastus, of. c7t., § 40 ad fin. (ed. Wimmer), can be filled from this passage, viz. ob yap donep ev yh (iropever Ty VAnr) adda Krh, 5 i, e, where there is evaporation everywhere going on, and therefore matter for wind. 645-25 U 946° BO 946° on 10 15 PROBLEMATA Why do all things appear larger when the South-East 53 wind (Eurus)! blows?2 Is it because it makes the air gloomier ?° Why is it that during the winter the winds blow early 54 and from the east, but in summer in the evening and from the setting sun?* Is it because what happens in our part of the world during the summer occurs during the winter among those who inhabit the opposite hemisphere of the earth, and with us in the winter the winds blow early and from the east, because the air, which during the night is full of moisture,° is dissolved and set in motion by the sun in the early morning, the air nearest the sun being the first to be affected? The sun begins to produce this effect even before it rises; therefore the breezes blow just as much before sunrise. Since then the sun attracts the moisture to itself and in the winter before its rising sets in motion in our part of the earth the air which is moist, it is clear that it would also attract the moisture when it is in the southern hemisphere, and it would be evening there when it is early morning with us. The result would be that the air, which the sun attracts to itself before its rising in our part of the world, would become a West wind to the dwellers in the south and would blow in the evening. Now what happens during our winter at dawn happens to them in the evening, and what happens in the summer to them at dawn happens to us in the evening;° for when it is summer here, it is winter there, and our evening is their early morning, at which time they have breezes from the east,’ while we have West winds for the same reasons as are mentioned above. In the summer breezes do not blow from the east, because the sun, when it rises, finds the air in our part of the earth still too dry, owing to the short period of its absence; and See note on 943° 5. * Reading ven for mvei. Reading (opwdéarepoy (Platt). * Cp. above, chapter 21. Reading «d@vypov (dvta) (Richards). ‘he sentence as it stands in the text is clearly incomplete, and something like the following must be read: 6 S€ év 76 map’ hua xepore THs €w, exelrars Crys SeiAns) oupBaiver’ d dé ev ro O€per (ris €w exelvols ), THs OeiAns r piv. T Reading éw for €was. 1 8 5 6 BOOK XXVI. 54 946° West winds do not blow in the evening during the winter, because East winds do not blow in the southern hemisphere either at that time for the aforesaid reasons, in virtue of which the sun attracts the moisture to itself and 20 produces ! the West wind in our part of the earth. 55 Why is the West wind always considered to bring fair weather and to be the pleasantest of the winds?” Is it because it is on the boundary between the hot and the cold winds, and being near to them both it partakes of their qualities, and is therefore temperate? The East wind, though it also lies between the hot and the cold winds, 5 partakes less of them; for when it blows it sets in motion the winds towards the south (for, when it changes, it does so in that direction), but, though it sets them in motion, it does not mingle with them. The West wind is set in motion by the South winds and, when it blows, it sets the North winds in motion; for there the succession of the winds ceases. Hence the West wind, constituting as it does the 30 end of some winds and the starting-point of others, justly is and is considered to be a pleasant wind. 56 Why are different winds rainy in different places ;* for example, Hellespontias* (the East wind) in Attica and the islands, the North wind on the Hellespont and in Cyrene, and the South wind round Lesbos? Is it because rain occurs wherever there is a collection of clouds, since density 33 collects wherever it can settle? It is for this reason that there is more rain among the mountains than where the mass of clouds can find a free passage, for that which is confined becomes dense as a necessary consequence; also it rains more in calm weather. Inthe Hellespont the North wind, blowing from its upper end, masses together many 947? clouds, which Hellespontias (the East wind) drives towards Attica and the islands, being thus provided with ample material; for most clouds come round from the north. 1 0m should perhaps be read here for movei, ‘for the sun to attract the moisture to itself and cause’, &c. 2 This chapter is a shorter version of chapter 31 above. ’ A longer version of chapter 7. 4 Another name for Apeliotes, cp. Vent. Szt. 973% 22. U2 947° PROBLEMATA Round Lesbos the South-East (Eurus)! and South winds 5 bring much cloud from the open sea and drive? it against the land. Similar instances might be quoted for the other winds, What is the origin of the saying, 57 Have no fear of a cloud from the land in the season of winter, But if it come from over the deep have a care; and in summer Ever distrust the cloud that sweeps from the gloom of the mainland ?* Is it because in the winter the sea is warmer, so that, if any 10 cloud has formed, it must have done so from some powerful cause, otherwise it would have been dissolved, because the region in which it forms is warm? Now in the summer the sea is cold, as also are the sea breezes, but the land is hot, so that if any cloud comes from the land, it must have been formed from some considerable cause; for it would have been dissolved if it had been weak. s Why is it that in Arcadia, which is high, the winds are 58 no colder than elsewhere, but when there is no wind and it is cloudy, it is cold, just as it is in flat, marshy districts? Is it because Arcadia resembles a marshy district, since it has no outlet for its waters to the sea, for which reason also ao there are many chasms there? When, therefore, there is a wind, it winnows away the exhalations from the earth, which are cold, but the winds themselves are not cold, because they arrive from the sea; but when there is no wind the vapour which rises from the stagnant water causes the cold. a5 Why is it that the wind lasts a long time when it begins 59 to blow at dawn? Is it because, when the sun rises, the impetus given to the wind is very violent and can therefore maintain its character? That this is so is shown by the fact that it forms a strong mass. 1 See note on 946% 33. ? Reading with Sylburg mpooBdddovar, * The source of this problem is Theophrastus, of. c’t., § 60, where ws ano 761'rov Should be emended aX’ aro mévrov. Cp. 938° Io. BOOK XXVI. 60 947° 60 Why is it that the North wind is keen during the day but falls at night? Is it because it is generated from frozen rain when this is evaporated by the sun? It falls at night, 30 because the process does not go on as before, but is re- versed ; for at night the North wind expends itself,! but it is less apt to do so during the day. 61 Why is it that when many spiders’ webs? are borne through the air, they are a sign of wind? Is it because the spider works in fine weather, but the webs are set in 35 motion because the air, as it cools, collects on the ground, and this cooling process is the beginning of winter, so that the movement of the webs is a sign? Or is it because after rain and storms the spiders* are borne through the air in large numbers, since they work in fine weather (for they do not appear at all in the winter, the spider being an animal?* which cannot support the cold), and as they are 947 borne along by the wind they unwind a quantity of web? Now after rain winds usually blow. 62 Why is it that the strong North winds® in winter cause clouds in the cold regions, but outside them bring a clear sky ?° Is it because they are at the same time cold and strong, and in the regions near the north they are colder and so congeal the clouds before they can drive them along, and the clouds, when they are congealed, remain where they are owing to their weight? Elsewhere, however, it is their strength rather than their coldness which takes effect. ou 1 For this meaning of éxrvéw cp. 942% 24, and the similar use of éxxvows 941” 36. * i.e. gossamers. : 5 Reading dpayvar for dpaxvioy, Though apaxvioy 1S frequently used in the sense of a ‘small spider’, in this passage it seems always to mean ‘spider’s web’, and dpaxyvay must be read to agree with épyatouévay and to provide a masculine plural to which epdpevoe may refer. * Reading 16 Onpiov for 165e (Bonitz). 5 Reading of Bopéa Cot) peyador. eis ® The source of this problem is Theophrastus, of. ciz., §§ 6, 7. 947 Io 15 20 25 BOOK DOG it PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH FEAR AND COURAGE Wuy do those who are afraid tremble?! Is it due to the! process of chilling? For the heat fails and contracts ; that is also why the bowels usually are loosened.” Why do men become thirsty under certain conditions, 2 those, for example, who are about to be punished?* For this ought not to be so, since they are chilled. Is it because the chilling and heating do not occur in the same region, but the former takes place on the surface of the body, from which the heat departs, but the heating takes place in the interior, so that it warms it, as is proved by the fact that the bowels become loosened? For thirst occurs when the sovereign region* of the body becomes dry. The same thing seems to happen as occurs in those suffering from ague,° who are thirsty and cold at the same time; for in their case too the same part of the body is not hot and cold. Why is it that under the influence of anger men become heated and bold (the heat collecting in the interior of the body), whereas in a state of fear they are in a contrary condition? Is it because they are not affected in the same region, but in those who are angry the heat collects in the region of the heart—hence they become courageous and red in the face and full of breath—the course of the heat being upwards, whereas in those who are afraid the blood and heat both retreat in a downward direction—hence the bowels become loosened. For the beating of the heart is ? This problem is dealt with more fully in chapters 6 and 7. * See below, chapter 10, * Cp. below, chapter 8. * The region in which the most important organs are situated ; cp. ktpia pdpia, Gen. An. 744» 31. ° The exact nature of this disease is doubtful; see W. H. S. Jones, Malaria, a Neglected Fuctor in the History of Greece and Rome, Pp: 25, 36, 37. BOOK XXVIL 3 947° different, since in those who are frightened it is frequent and 30 strongly punctuated, as would naturally occur from the failure of heat, while in those who are angry it has the character which one would expect when a greater quantity of heat collects. Hence the expressions about anger ‘ boil- ing up’ and ‘rising’ and ‘being stirred up’ and the like are apt and fitting. Is the thirst also due to this cause, since dry-spitting and the parching of the tongue and the 35 like are due to the simultaneous upward rush of breath and heat? Thirst, moreover, is clearly due to the body becoming heated. How then can the same region, namely, that in which we feel thirst, become dried up both in one who is afraid and in one who is angry? That fear tends to produce thirst is clearly shown in the case of routed 948* soldiers; for under no other condition is such thirst ex- perienced, The same is true of those suffering from great anxiety ; therefore they wash out their mouths and swallow liquid, as did Parmenon the actor. Or is it in such cases not thirst but dryness due to the flight of blood (whence also they become pale)? This is indicated by the fact that 5 they do not drink much but simply take a gulp; routed soldiers on the other hand are undergoing violent exer- tion.! So those who are about to be punished feel thirst, and in this there is nothing strange. In war some brave men even, when they are drawn up in battle array, actually tremble when they are not distraught but confident; and they often beat their bodies with a flat cane or, failing that, with the hand, in order that they may be warmed.? It seems probable that owing to the violence and impetus of the heat a disturbing inequality of the temperature is set up in the body. O° 4 Why are brave men generally fond of wine? Is it because the brave are full of heat, and the heat is in the region of the chest? (For it is there also that fear shows itself, acting as a process of cooling; with the result that ° = ur 1 Which gives a reason for their excessive thirst in addition to the effect of fear. 2 Reading with Richards yepoty (i) dvaleppardy. ® Omitting rots pév, inserted by Ruelle without MS. authority, 948? 20 Is) w or PROBLEMATA less! heat remains in the region of the heart, and in some men the heart beats violently as it is cooled.) Those then who have an abundance of blood in their lungs have hot lungs, as though they were drunk, and so the presenti- ment of danger does not chill them. Such men are fond of drinking; for the desire for drink is due to the heat of this region, as has been stated elsewhere,” and the desire is for that which has power to stop the heat. Now wine is naturally hot and satisfies the thirst better than water, particularly in those whom we are now considering ;* the reason for this has been stated elsewhere. Hence those who are suffering from inflammation of the lungs and those who are mad both desire wine, though the lungs of the former are hot owing to the fever, and those of the latter owing to their state of disturbance. Since, then, the same people are usually of a thirsty and of a brave kind, and those who are thirsty desire wine and are therefore fond of drinking, it necessarily follows that the two characteristics of bravery and fondness for wine usually go together. Hence those who are drunk are braver than those who are not. Why do states honour courage more than anything else, though it is not the highest of the virtues? Is it because they are continually either making war or having war made against them, and courage is most useful in both these circumstances? They, therefore, honour not that which is ideally best, but that which is best for themselves. Why do those who are afraid tremble most in the voice, the hands, and the lower lip?® Is it because this affection is due to the departure of heat from the upper parts of the body? If so, their pallor is due to the same cause. The voice, then, trembles owing to the departure of heat from the chest, the region in which the voice is set in motion _' Reading jjrrwy (Bussemaker) and omitting péy, which is due to dittography. 2 Cp. 872° 4 ff. * Reading rév rovovtay (sc. trav dvdpeiwv) for trav a’tay which gives no sense: T. G. renders maximegue zd genus hominum. * The reference cannot be identified. ® Cp. chapters 1 and 7, and xi. 31. BOOK XXVII. 6 948° thus becoming cooled. So too with the hands; for they are attached to the chest. The lower lip trembles, and not 948° the upper, because the upper lip hangs downwards! in the direction of its natural tendency ; but the upward direction of the lower lip is contrary to nature and it is held steady in that position by the heat. When, therefore, the heat is withdrawn as the process of cooling takes place, it trembles. For the same reason the lip hangs down when a man is angry, as can be seen clearly in children; for the heat 5 rushes together into the heart. 7. Why do those who are afraid tremble, especially in the voice, the hands, and the lower lip?” Is it because the heat fails in the region of the body in which the voice is situated, while the trembling of the lip and hands is due to the fact that they are very easily set in motion and contain very little blood? Those who are afraid also emit bile and their 10 sexual organs contract, the emission of bile being due to the heat which descends and causes liquefaction, while the contraction of the sexual organs is due to the fact that fear comes from outside, and therefore the rush of heat is in the contrary direction.* 8 Why do those who are afraid feel both thirst and cold, these being contrary affections ?* Do they feel cold because they are chilled, and thirst because they are heated, since under the influence of fear the heat and the moisture leave the upper parts of the body? That this happens is shown by the change of colour and by the effect on the bowels; for the face becomes pale and the bowels are sometimes loosened. The cold, therefore, is caused by the departure of the heat, and the thirst by the departure of the moisture,” from the upper parts of the body. or g Why is it that, although both fear and pain are a kind of 20 grief, those who are in pain cry out, but those who are 1 Reading ro d€ kdrw yeiAos GAN’ ov Td divabev (rpépet, Oibre TO dvwOer) KaTw Kpepatat KT), ? Another version of the problem of chapter 6. 3 Cp. 949% 15 dre tov Geppov exxexpipevovr. ‘ This question has already been touched upon in chapter 3. ® Reading d:a 7d (1rd) bypov (sc. €xAeirew) with Bonitz and Richards. 948° PROBLEMATA afraid keep silence? Is it because those who are in pain hold their breath (and so it is emitted all at once and comes forth with a loud cry), whereas the body of those who are afraid is chilled and the heat is carried downwards and as creates breath? It creates breath in the particular region to which it is carried; hence those who are frightened break wind. Now the voice is a rush of breath upwards in a particular manner and through certain channels; and the reason why those who are in pain hold the breath is that when we suffer anything (just as the other animals use their horns or teeth or claws in self-defence) we invariably 3o make use straightway and without thought of the resources which we have in ourselves by nature, and against all or most forms of pain heat is helpful. This is what occurs when a man holds his breath; for he applies heat and con- coction to the pain by collecting heat within him by means of the breath. 35 Why is it that in those who are afraid the bowels are loosened and they desire to pass urine?! Is it because the. heat in us is asit werealive? It therefore flees whenever it is atraid of anything. Since, then, the fears due to nervous- ness and the like come from without and pass from the upper to the lower parts of the body and from the surface to the 949° interior, the regions round the bowels and bladder becom- ing heated are loosened? and make these organs ready to function. For anise and wormwood and all substances which promote the flow of urine have heating properties. Similarly the drugs which affect the bowels are those ' This problem is quoted as Aristotelian by Aulus Gellius (xix. 4) : Aristotelts libri sunt qui problemata physica inscribuntur, lepidisstnt et elegantiarum omne genus refertt. In his qguaertt guam ob causam eveniat, ut guibus invasit repentinus rei magnae timor plerumgue alve statim cita fiant...ac de alvo quidem inter timendum prona atque praecipiti causam esse dictt quod tiinor omnibus sit algificus, guem ille appellat uxporomrikdy, guae vis frigoris sanguinem caldoremgue omnem de summa corporis cute cogat penitus et depellat, faciatgue simul uti gui ciment, sanguine ex ore decedente, pallescant. Is autem, ingutt, sanguis et caldor in ultima coactus movet plerumgue aluum et incitat. While Aulus Gellius gives in the main the substance of this problem, it is noticeable that the word Wuyporoinrixdy does not occur in the text as we have it, nor indeed elsewhere in the Aristotelian Corpus. * Reading 4) for dé, as suggested by Richards. Io BOOK XXVII. 10 949° which cause heat in the lower parts of the body,! and some of those which are applied merely * have a loosening effect, while others set up a further process of liquefaction, like garlic, which passes into the urine.’ Now heat coming from the surfaces of the body and meeting in these regions has the same effect as such drugs. on 11 Why do the sexual organs contract in those who are afraid? For one would expect the contrary to happen, namely, that they should become relaxed, since the heat 10 collects in this region in those who are afraid. Is it because those who are afraid are almost always as it were chilled? Their sexual organs therefore contract, because the heat has left the surface of the body; hence also those who are greatly frightened have internal rumblings. The surface of the body and the skin of those who are cold seems to contract, because the heat is driven out; and it is for this 15 reason too that they shiver. Now the scrotum too contracts upwards and the testicles also are lifted up with it as it is drawn int This is more readily seen in the effect on the sexual organs; for fear causes excretion, and an emis- sion of semen often occurs ® in those who are nervous or 20 greatly alarmed. 1 Reading tay kato. 2 Reading povoy with X*, Y*, AP. * Cp. above, 908? 28 ff. * Reading aity cuareAdopévy for adtois cvareANopevwy (cp. the Latin version of [.G. atgue eo (sc. scroto) contracto una testiculi contra- huntur). There is nothing for airois to refer to, and the view of Bonitz (/udex, sub voce avatéddw) that svoreddAdpevoe is equivalent to oBovpevor can hardly be right, ovveoradpevor might conceivably mean *downcast’ (cp. Eurip. H. 7. 1417 ovvéotadpat kakois), but this is scarcely the sense required here, and the present participle could not possibly bear this meaning. 5 Reading cupBaive: (Platt) for ovykivet 7. 949" BOOK XXVIII PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH TEMPERANCE AND INTEMPERANCE, CONTINENCE AND INCONTINENCE Why is it that some men become ill when, after having 1 been accustomed to live intemperately, they adopt a tem- 25 perate mode of life? For example, Dionysius the tyrant, when during the siege! he ceased drinking for a short time, immediately became consumptive, until he changed his manner of life and began to drink again. Is it because in every one habit is a matter of importance, since it soon becomes a second nature? Just, then,’ as a fish would fare ill if it continued long in the air or a man if he con- 30 tinued long in the water, so those who alter their manner of life suffer from the change, and a resumption of their accustomed mode of life is just as much their salvation as if they were returning to a natural condition. Furthermore, men waste away if they have been accustomed to large quan- tities of a particular diet ; for if they do not receive their usual food, they are reduced to the condition in which they 35 would be if they had no nourishment at all. Moreover, the excretions, when mixed with a large quantity of food, disappear, but by themselves they rise to the surface and are carried to the eyes or lungs; whereas, if one takes nourish- ment, they mix with it and become diluted and harmless. 949” But in those who live an intemperate life the excretions become superabundant up to a certain point, when they cease from their accustomed mode of life, owing to the fact that much undigested matter is still present in them from their former manner of living; and, when this is melted, like a mass of snow, by the natural heat, the result is that 5 violent fluxes take place. 1 i, e. the siege of Syracuse by the Carthaginians in 397 B.C. > Reading ody for ay (Richards). BOOK XXVIII. 2 949” 2 Why is it that we speak of men as incontinent in con- nexion with two only of the senses, namely, touch and taste?! Is it because of the pleasures that result from these in us and in the other animals? Being then shared by the animals, they are held in least honour and so are regarded as the only pleasures deserving of reproach, or at any rate more so than any others. So we blame a man who is a slave to them and call him incontinent and intemperate, 10 because he is a slave to the worst pleasures. 3 Why are men called incontinent in respect only of their desires, although incontinence is possible also in anger? Is it because an incontinent man is one who acts in some way contrary to reason, and incontinence is a mode of life '5 which is contrary to reason, and the desires are, generally speaking, contrary to reason? Feelings of anger, on the other hand, are in consonance with reason, not in the sense that reason prompts them, but in the sense that reason informs us of the insult or of the charge made against us. 4 Why is it that we approve most of continence and 2o temperance in the young and wealthy, and of justice in the poor? Is it because we feel most admiration if a man abstains from what he most desires, rather than from the contrary? Now a poor man desires easy circumstances, while a rich young man wants enjoyment. a5 5 Why can men tolerate thirst less easily than hunger ?? Is it because thirst is more painful? A proof that it is so is the fact that there is more pleasure in drinking when one is thirsty than in eating when one is hungry. Now the contrary of what is more pleasant® is more painful. Or is it because the heat whereby we live* requires moisture more?> Or is it because thirst is a desire of two things, 30 namely, drink and food, but hunger is a desire of only one, namely, food ? 1 Cp. below, chapter 7. The doctrine is that of Z. V. 11484 8-10. 2 Cp. chapter 6. Ysr 8 Reading ro 7diov, since the comparative is demanded by the sense. 4 Heat being 4 Wuyixn dpyn (G. A. 751” 6). 5 Reading Seirat rod typod rd Oeppov G Capev (W. D.R.). 79 Enpdy appears to be a gloss which has replaced 16 Oeppdv, and rd Geppov has been afterwards inserted in the wrong place. 949° PROBLEMATA Why can we endure thirst less than hunger?! Is it 6 because the former causes us more pain? A proof of the pain it causes is the fact that the pleasure it gives is more intense.2. Further, he who is thirsty needs two things, 35 nourishment and cooling, and drink provides both of these ; but he who is hungry needs one of them only. Why are men called incontinent if they indulge to excess 7 in the pleasures connected with touch and taste?’ (For g50° those who are intemperate in sexual intercourse and the enjoyments of eating and drinking are called incontinent ; and in the joys of eating and drinking the pleasure is partly in the tongue and partly in the throat; hence Philoxenus * longed for the throat of acrane.) And why is the term incon- tinent never extended to the pleasures of sight and hearing ? 5 Is it because the pleasures of touch and taste are common to us and the other animals? Being, then, shared by the animals they are held in least honour and so are regarded as the only pleasures deserving of reproach, or at any rate more so than any others. So we blame a man who isa slave to them and call him incontinent and intemperate, because he is a slave to the worst pleasures. Now the senses being ro five in number, the other animals find pleasure only in the two already mentioned ; in the others they find no pleasure, or, if they do, it is only incidentally. For the lion ® rejoices when he sees or scents his prey, because he is going to enjoy it;® and when he has satisfied his hunger, such things do not please him, just as the smell of dried fish 15 gives us no pleasure when we have eaten our fill of it, though, when we wanted to partake of it, it was pleasant.’ : Cp. chapter 5. . Reading 7 78ov1) (7) aodporépa. Cp. above, chapter 2. This problem is quoted in Greek by Aulus Gellius (xix. 2) as Aristotelian. Cd Fai ONGE * The repetition of dpa .. . 6pav here is unsatisfactory, and in any case we should expect a neuter to agree with (@ov understood. In £. N; 1118" 18 ff., where the same subject is discussed, the example taken of an animal is the lion. We ought certainly, therefore, to read here opav pev yap 6 Newv. [Richards (of. c/Z., p. 144) makes the same suggestion. ] * Reading dzoXatcer (Bonitz). ” Reading ndcia (Sylburg) for 7Séa. BOOK XXVIII. 7 950° The scent of the rose, on the other hand, is always pleasant. 8 Why are men less able to restrain their laughter in the presence of friends? Is it because, when anything is espe- cially elated, it is easily set in motion? Now benevolence causes elation,’ so that laughter more readily moves us. 1 ¢imeiv is clearly corrupt. The point of the solution of the problem appears to depend on the metaphorical use of ¢€aipew ; and something like the following seems to be required: 7 8 etvora e€atper, Bore Kier padXov To yeXotov. a 95° BOOK XXIX PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH JUSTICE AND INJUSTICE Wnuy is it that, although injustice is greater according as I the good which is injured is greater, and honour is a greater good, yet injustice in the matter of money seems to be more serious and those who are unjust as regards money 25 are considered more unjust? Is it because men prefer money to honour, and money is common to all, whereas honour comes only to a few and its enjoyment is a rare occurrence ? Why is it a more terrible thing to rob a man of a deposit 2 than of a loan?! Is it because it is disgraceful to wrong a friend? Now he who robs another of a deposit does 30 wrong to a friend; for no one places a deposit with another unless he trusts him. A creditor, on the other hand, is not a friend; for, if a man is a friend, he gives and does not lend. Or is it because the injustice is greater, since, in addition to the loss inflicted, he also violates his plighted word, for the sake of which, if for no other reason, he ought to abstain from doing the wrong? Further, it is 35 base not to requite like with like; for the one party in making the deposit regarded the other as his friend, but the latter in robbing him treated him as an enemy; but a lender does not lend in the spirit of friendship. Again, a deposit is handed over to be guarded and returned, whereas the lender lends for his own advantage as well. Now we are less angry at losing if we are in pursuit of 950” gain, like fishermen when they lose their bait; for the risk is obvious. Again, those who make deposits are generally the victims of plots or misfortune, but it is the rich who lend money; and it is more terrible to wrong the unfortunate than the fortunate. ’ Cp. below, chapter 6. BOOK XXIX. 3 950° 3 Why is it that in some law courts the jury give their 5 verdict! in accordance with the birth of the litigants rather than the provisions of the will? Is it because about birth it is impossible to lie, but the truth must be declared, whereas before now many wills have been proved to be forged ? 4 Why is it that poverty is more commonly found amongst the good than amongst the bad?? Is it because, being universally hated and despised, she takes refuge with the good, thinking that with them she is most likely to find safety and a place of habitation; whereas she thinks that if she goes to. the wicked, they would never remain content with the same condition but would steal or plunder, in which case she could no longer remain with them? Or 15 is it because she thinks that the good will treat her better than any one else and that she is least likely to be in- sulted by them? So, just as we place deposits * of money with good men, so she of her own accord * ranges herselt with them. Or is it because, being of the female sex, she is more helpless, so that she needs the assistance of the 20 good? Or is it because, being herself an evil, she will not betake herself to that which is evil, since if she were to choose the evil, her position would be quite irremediable ? ° 5 Why is it that wrongs in other matters are not so liable to be committed on a large scale® as those in respect ot money ?°® For example, a man who has spoken a light word would not therefore necessarily divulge a secret, nor? would one who has betrayed an individual also betray a city, as a man who has stolen an obol would steal a talent is} wr 1 Reading Wnpitorra: for Wydiodyra, as suggested by Bekker. * Cp. below, chapter 8. 3 In the Teubner Text r:éueva is a misprint for riOépe0a. 4 Reading avrns for adtis. 5 Reading ai aduxiar Cai) peiCous (Richards). ® Reading ypypyara. Most MSS. read pyyara, but Y* (which not in- frequently preserves the correct reading) reads xprypara, and the Latin version renders i#/uriae in pecunits, The origin of the change to énuara may be found in the fact that eirav ... ero occur below. If pnuara is read, no sense can be found for the concluding sentence of the chapter; whereas, if xpyjmara is read, the argument is clear and resembles that of chapter I. 7 Reading otS€ for ada; the Latin version renders zegize gui unui prodiderit, &c. 645-25 xX 950° PROBLEMATA also. Is it because, though there are forms of unjust dis- position which are worse,' the acts resulting from them are less serious owing to lack of power ? Why is it more disgraccful? to rob a man of a small 6 deposit than of a large loan?* Is it because he who robs 30 another of a deposit is deceiving a man who thought him to be honest? Or is it because he who commits the one crime would commit the other also? Why is it that man, who of all animals has the advantage 7 of most education, is yet the most unjust of all? Is it because he possesses the power of reasoning to the greatest degree, and has therefore most carefully estimated the 35 pleasures and happiness, and these are impossible of attain- ment without injustice ? Why is it that wealth is more often found in the hands 8 of the wicked than in those of the good? Is it because, being blind,* it cannot read men’s hearts and choose the best ? 951° Why is it considered more just to defend the dead thang the living? Is it because those who are alive can look after themselves, but a dead man can no longer do so? Why is it that a man who associates with one who is Io healthy does not himself become any healthier,> nor does intercourse with the strong or beautiful improve a man’s 5 condition, whereas association with the just and temperate and good does have this effect? Is it because some quali- ties can, and others cannot, be imitated by the soul, good- ness being a quality of the soul and health of the body? A man can, therefore, accustom himself to feel pleasure and pain under the proper circumstances; but his associa- tion with the healthy does not produce this result, for health does not consist in taking pleasure or not in certain 10 things, since none of these things can produce health. Sc. than that involved in stealing a talent. Reading ato wor for aio xpoy with Bonitz (Aristot. Stud., p. 418). Cp. above, chapter 2. Cp. above, chapter 4, where poverty is personified. Cp. 886 5. oer 1 2 8 4 5 BOOK XXEX? ir g51° 1 Why is it more terrible to kill a woman than a man, although the male is naturally superior to the female? Is it because she is weaker and so he commits a greater ! injustice ? Or is it because it is not a manly act to use one’s strength against that which is greatly inferior ? 12 Why is the defendant given the position on the right hand in alaw court? Is it froma desire to equalize matters ? Since, then, the plaintiff possesses other advantages, the defendant is given the advantage of position. Further, as a rule defendants are under guard; and, if the defendant has the right-hand position, the guard is on his right.” = é 13. Why is it that, when the votes for the plaintiff and for 20 the defendant are shown to be equal, the defendant wins the case? Is it because the defendant has heard only in court, during the course of the trial itself,® the charges against which he has to make his defence and produce the witnesses to refute the accusations,‘ if any advantage is to be obtained from them?” Now it is not easy for a man to foresee of 25 what he ought to provide witnesses or some other kind of evidence to prove his innocence. The plaintiff, on the other hand, can act as he pleases, and can begin to take action before having the summons issued; and even after he has summoned his opponent he can invent and bring against him any plausible accusation he likes. The lawgiver then, recogniz- ing that the defendant has the disadvantage in all these 30 respects, has given him any advantage which may accrue from the disagreement of the jury. And, indeed, that defendants are at a disadvantage is shown by the fact that when men are ina state of alarm they omit much of what they ought to have said or done, and defendants are, generally speaking, always in greater danger; and so, if 1 Reading peifw (W. D. R.) for éAdrrw, cp. 95271. 2 The meaning perhaps is that the accused is placed on the right hand of the judge and has on his own right hand the guard which has charge of him; he is, therefore, protected on both sides. ® Reading with Richards, aire for avrov. 4 Omitting (7d) and éxeo@a, which is probably due to the preceding mapagxeoOat. : ; 5 Reading with Y* dpednOjcecOu and taking peA\ovor as a Careless plural for singular. x 2 951° PROBLEMATA 35 they omit necessary parts of their defence, when they are put on a level with their opponents in respect of their claims, they would clearly have been victorious if they had not omitted anything. Further, any one of us would prefer to pass a sentence 95!” acquitting a wrong-doer rather than condemn as guilty one who is innocent, in the case, for example, of a man being accused of enslavement or murder. For we should prefer to acquit either of such persons, though the charges brought against them by their accuser were true,’ rather than con- s5demn them if they were untrue; for, when any doubt is entertained, the less grave error ought to be preferred ; it is a serious matter to decide that a slave is free, yet it is much more serious to convict a freeman of being a slave. Further, if one man brings a charge and another disputes his claim to any piece of property, we do not consider that 10 we Ought to award the disputed property immediately to the plaintiff, but that the man in possession ought to enjoy it until the matter is decided. Similarly, when a number of persons are involved in a case and the numbers of those who declare that a wrong has been committed and of those who deny it are equal—just as in the case cited above when one man brought an accusation, while another denied the truth of it—we consider that the lawgiver is right in not handing over the disputed property” to the accuser but allowing the defendant to remain in possession until the plaintiff* has established some superiority. Similarly, when the votes of the jury are equal and so neither side has the superiority,* the lawgiver has allowed matters to be left as they are. Again, in serious crimes the punishments are also heavy, 20 SO that, if the jury pass an unjust sentence and then change their mind,” it is impossible to take the opportunity of _ or * Punctuating rovre@y yap éxdorov, dvr@v & Katnyopel att@v, waddov KT. * We should perhaps read mpoorier@a (cp. 951% 31) for mpooriOéva, The Latin version of T. G. renders favere. * Reading dioxwv for ddiaév with Bonitz, Aristot. Stud., p. 418. * Reading ovdepia trepox) with Bonitz, loc. cit. ® Reading perayrotow (Richards). BOOK XXIX. 13 g51° remedying the mistake ; if, on the other hand, they acquit the accused when they ought not to do so, if he lives} so circumspectly as never to commit any crime again, how can the jury have made a serious mistake in failing to condemn such a man to death? If, however, he subsequently com- mits a crime, the law? would consider ® that he ought to be 25 punished for both crimes. Or is it because it is an act of greater injustice to bring an unjust accusation than to commit an offence which may easily be made the subject of an unjust accusation? For wrong-doing may be due to anger or fear or desire and to many Other causes, and not only to design, but an unjust accusation is generally due to design. So when the votes 3° have proved equal, indicating both® that the accuser has brought an unjust charge and that the defendant is in the wrong, the unjust accuser being judged the greater offender,° the lawgiver has awarded the legal victory to the defen- dant. Again, we ourselves adopt the attitude towards our servants that, when we suspect that they have committed 35 a crime and have no certain knowledge, but nevertheless think that they have done the deed, we do not immediately proceed to punish them ; and when we cannot pursue our inquiries any further, we acquit them of blame. 952° Further, he who designedly commits a crime does a greater wrong than he who does not act designedly. Now the man who brings a vexatious charge against another always does wrong designedly, whereas he who commits any other crime may happen to do so either under com- pulsion or through ignorance or by some other chance. But 5 when the votes are equal, the prosecutor has been judged by half the jury to be committing a wrong wilfully, while 1 Reading «7 peév ovras ebAaBas ((4n) or some similar verb. 2 The subject is 6 vouobérns supplied. 3 Reading d€wwin (W. D. R.). a a 4 The text as it stands gives no sense either in itself or in view of the rest of the argument, which seems to require something Jike the following: #) dre ddicwrépov pév €or avdpos (adidas eykadeiv )) Tavta adcxeiy & [Hrrov] eixds cori adicds &yKadeicOat. 8 Reading ro 7 for rd d¢ [so also Bussemaker}. ® Reading davdorépov for pavAov (Richards). 952° PROBLEMATA the defendant is considered by the remainder to be in the wrong, but not wilfully; and so, since the prosecutor is judged guilty of a more serious wrong than the defendant, the lawgiver has rightly decided that he who has committed 10 the less serious wrong wins the case. Further, a man is always more unjust who does not expect to escape the observation of the man whom he wrongs and nevertheless commits the wrong, than he who expects to remain undiscovered. Now! he who brings a vexatious charge against another does not expect to escape the observation of the man whom he falsely accuses, whereas those who commit any other crime usually try to commit an injustice with the expectation of doing so with- 15 Out the knowledge of their victims, so that plaintiffs ought to be regarded as more unjust than defendants. Why is it that, if a man steals from the baths or the 14 wrestling-school or the market or any similar place, he is punished with death, whereas, if he steals from a house, he merely pays back double? the value of what he has stolen ? 20 Is it because in houses it is possible in some way or other to safeguard one’s property? For the wall is strong and there is a key, and it is the business of all the slaves in the house to see that the contents of the house are kept safe. At the baths, however, and in places which are similarly public, it is easy for any one who wishes to commit a crime; 25 for those who place their property there have no sure means of guarding it except their own eyes, so that, if one takes one’s eye off it for a moment, it is immediately placed at the mercy of the thief. Hence the lawgiver, considering that bathers are not able to guard their property, has set the law to guard against thieves by threatening that they 30 Shall lose their lives if they appropriate the possessions of others. Further, the owner of a house is responsible for admitting into it whom he wishes and for introducing ® into it any one whom he does not trust; but the man who deposits any * Reading with Richards ov» for yap. * The Teubner Text misprints di:7Aovs for diumdody. ® Reading clapper Oa (Richards). BOOK XXIX. 14 seas property in a bath cannot prevent any one trom coming in, nor can he prevent him, when he has entered, from placing his garments next to his own! when he has stripped himself;? but, contrary to his wishes, the clothing of the thief and of the man who is about to be robbed lie together 35 ina confused heap. Therefore the lawgiver has prescribed not very heavy penalties to help the man who of his own free will and by his own mistake has admitted the thief to 952° his house, but has clearly fixed heavy penalties for theft to aid those who are obliged to share with others the right of entrance and the promiscuity of the baths. Further, it is obvious that all those who commit theft in places the entrance to which is open to any one who wishes to come are bad men,° and so, if they are allowed to live, do not desire to have the semblance of honest men even for the future advantage which they can gain from it, regarding itas useless to pretend to be honest in the eyes of those who know their real character; they therefore continue hence- forward to be openly wicked. Those, on the other hand, whose wickedness is known to one person only, try to per- suade that person by bribery not to make known their real character to the rest of the world; they are not likely therefore to be completely wicked for ever, and so the penalty which the lawgiver has fixed for them is less severe. Further, of all crimes those which are committed in the most crowded meetings and assemblies bring most disgrace upon the city, just as public orderliness brings the greatest credit; for it is at public gatherings that the citizens are most conspicuous to each other and the rest of the world. The result, therefore, of such thefts is that not only is the man who loses his property personally injured, but also abuse is heaped upon the city. This is why the lawgiver has fixed heavier penalties for such thieves than for those 20 who abstract property from a private house. ur i] io) or 1 Reading ro atrov <1d) iparioy «rd., and omitting kAémrny as a gloss. 2 Omitting ci. 3 Reading movnpot for pavepot. 952° PROBLEMATA Again, the man who loses anything from a private house is in a place where! it is easy for him to bear his misfor- tune, since he is in his own home and neither suffers anything nor is jeered at by others. But the man who is robbed at the baths finds it difficult to leave without his 25 clothing, and, in addition, is usually jeered at by others; and this is harder to bear than the actual loss. Therefore the lawgiver has prescribed heavier penalties to assist such persons. Again, many legislative parallels can be found for these penalties. For example, if any one speaks evil of a magis- trate the punishment is severe, but there is no penalty for speaking evil of an ordinary individual ; and rightly so, for 30 the legislator considers that the slanderer not only commits an offence against the magistrate but also insults the city. Similarly, a man who commits a theft at the harbour is considered not only to harm the individual whom he robs, but also to bring disgrace upon the city. And the same is 35 true of any crime committed in a place of public meeting. Why is it that in law courts, if equal votes are given for 15 the two adversaries, the defendant wins the case?? Is it 953" because the defendant has remained unaffected by the action of the plaintiff, and in a position of equality with him he would probably have won? Why is it that for theft the punishment is death, whereas 16 for assault, which is a more serious crime, the penalty or fine is assessable in court? Is it because to commit an 5 assault is an act of human weakness, of which all more or less partake, whereas there is no force which compels us to theft? A further reason is the fact that a man who tries to commit theft would think nothing of committing assault also. * 66ev can hardly be right and 6 should probably be read. * This chapter gives an additional suggestion for the solution of the problem of chapter 13. BOOK XXX PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH PRUDENCE, INTELLIGENCE, AND WISDOM Why is it that all those who have become eminent in philosophy or politics or poetry or the arts are clearly of an atrabilious temperament, and some of them to such an extent as to be affected by diseases caused by black bile, as is said to have happened to Heracles among the heroes?! For he appears to have been of this nature, wherefore epileptic afflictions were called by the ancients ‘the sacred disease’ after him.? That his temperament was atrabilious is shown by the fury which he displayed towards his children * and the eruption of sores which took place before his dis- appearance on Mount Oeta; for this often occurs as the result of black bile. Lysander the Lacedaemonian also suffered from similar sores before his death. There are also the stories of Ajax and Bellerophon, of whom the former became insane, while the latter sought out habita- tions in desert places; wherefore Homer writes, And since of all the gods he was hated, Verily o’er® the Aleian plain ® alone he would wander, Eating his own heart out, avoiding the pathway of mortals,’ 1 This problem is cited as Aristotelian by Cicero, Zusc. Disp. i. 33 Aristoteles quidem ait omnes ingeniosos niclancholicos esse; ut ego me tardiorem esse non moleste feram, LEnumerat multos, idgue guast constet, rattonem, cur ita fiat, adfert. It is also quoted by Plutarch ; see below, note 4. * Called by Hippocrates and Galen rdacs “HpakXein. 3 i.e. his murder of the children borne to hiin by Megara. * This passage is quoted as Aristotelian by Plutarch, Vit. Lysandri 2 "ApiororeAns Se tras peyddas uses aropaivwv pedayxodikas, @s THY Zwxpdrovs xat UAdrwvos Kal ‘Hpaxhéous, ioropet kai AvcavSpoy otk evOis GdXa mrpecBUteEpov OvTa TH pehayxXoKla TepuTEety. 5 Reading xam mediov for xammedior, ® Cp. Herodot. vi. 95 ; Arrian, Azad. ii. 5; Strabo xiv, p. 963. It was situated near the city of Mallus in Cilicia, between the rivers Pyramus and Sinarus. Tad ViV.i200-2. 953° 10 953" PROBLEMATA And many others of the heroes seem to have been similarly afflicted, and among men of recent times Empedocles, Plato, and Socrates, and numerous other well-known men, and also most of the poets. For many such persons have bodily 30 afflictions as the result of this kind of temperament, while some of them obviously possess a natural inclination to affections of this kind; in a word, they all, as has been said, are naturally atrabilious. The cause of this may be understood if we first take an example from the effect of wine, which if taken in large quantities appears to produce 35 such qualities as we attribute to the atrabilious, inducing, as it is drunk, many different characteristics, making men for instance irritable, benevolent, compassionate, or reckless ; whereas no such results are produced by honey or milk or water or anything similar. One can easily see that wine has a variety of effects by observing how it gradually 953° changes those who drink it; for, finding them chilled and taciturn as the result of abstinence, a small quantity makes them more talkative, while a larger quantity makes them eloquent and bold, and, when they proceed to action, reckless, and a still larger quantity makes them insolent and afterwards frenzied, while outrageous excess enfeebles 5 them and makes them stupid like those who have been epileptic from childhood,! and very similar to those who are exceedingly atrabilious. As, therefore, an individual as he drinks and takes wine in different quantities changes his character, so there are men who embody each character. For the temporary condition of one man when he is drunk is the permanent character of another, and one man is 10 loquacious, another emotional, another easily moved to tears; for wine has this effect also on some people? and therefore Homer writes, He says that I swim in tears, like a man that is heavy with drinking. Others become compassionate or savage or taciturn; for * Placing a comma after emAijrovs. 2 Cp. above, §74” 8-10. * Od. xix. 122, where the received text has ¢17) 5€ Saxpurdwew BeBapydra pe dpevas olve. % BOOK XXX. 1 some maintain a complete silence, especially those atrabilious subjects who are out of their minds. Wine also makes men amorous; as is shown by the fact that a man who is drinking is induced to kiss those whom, owing to their appearance or age, no sober person would kiss. Wine then gives a man extraordinary characteristics, but for a short time only, while nature gives them permanently for the period of a lifetime ; for some men are bold, others taciturn, others compassionate, and others cowardly by nature. It is therefore clear that each ' characteristic is produced by wine and by nature by the same means;? for the whole body functions under the control of heat. Now both the juice* and the atrabilious temperament are full of wind; wherefore the physicians say that flatulence and disorders of the stomach are due to black bile. Now wine has the quality of containing air; so wine and the atrabilious temperament are similar in nature. The froth which forms on wine shows that it contains air; for oil does not produce froth, although it is hot, but wine produces it in large quantities and dark wine more than white because it contains more heat and substance. It is for this reason that wine excites sexual desire, and Dionysus and Aphrodite are rightly coupled together, and atrabilious persons are generally lustful. For sexual desire is due to the presence of breath, as is shown by the fact that the virile organ quickly increases from a small to a large size by inflation; also® boys before they are capable of emitting semen find a certain pleasure in rubbing their sexual organs through lust when they are approaching the age of puberty, and the swelling of the organ becomes mani- fest because breath passes through the passages through 953 = uv 30 35 b which the semen subsequently passes; also the effusion 954° and impetus of the semen in sexual intercourse is clearly due to propulsion by the breath.° So those foods and liquids which fill the region of the sexual organs with breath are rightly regarded as aphrodisiac. Thus dark wine 1 Reading éxacroy (Richards) as in 1. 8. ; ? ® Reading dc tod adrow (Richards). # ie. wine, 4"Cp. 880* 30-33. 5 Omitting ér with Burnet. 6 Cp. H. A. vii. 7.586% 16, It seems necessary to read with Richards avepoy ore yiverat. 954° 5 - or 20 Ls) or 30 PROBLEMATA more than anything else produces the condition found in atrabilious persons.!. This condition is obvious in some individuals; for most atrabilious persons are thin? and their veins stand out, the reason being the abundance not of blood but of breath. The reason why all atrabilious persons are not thin® or dark,‘ but only those who contain particularly unhealthy humours, is stated elsewhere.? But to return to our previous subject of discussion, this humour, namely, the atrabilious, is originally mingled in the bodily nature, for it is a mixture of heat and cold, ot which two things the bodily nature consists. Black bile, therefore, becomes both very hot and very cold, for the same thing naturally admits both heat and cold, like water, which, though cold, yet when it is sufficiently heated (for example, when it boils) is hotter than the actual flame which heats it, and similarly a stone or a piece of iron when thoroughly heated becomes hotter than charcoal, though they are naturally cold. (This subject has been dealt with more clearly in dealing with Fire.*) Now black bile, which is naturally cold and not on the surface,’ being in the con- dition mentioned above, if it abounds in the body, produces apoplexy or torpor or despondency or fear; but when it is overheated, it produces cheerfulness accompanied by song, and frenzy, and the breaking forth of sores, and the like. In most people then black bile engendered from their daily nutriment does not change their character, but merely produces an atrabilious disease. But those who naturally possess an atrabilious temperament immediately develop diverse characters in accordance with their various tempera- ments; for example, those who are originally full of cold black bile become dull and stupid, whereas those who } Omitting trvevatwders as a gloss on rovovrous. ? Reading with Bussemaker oxAnpot. > Reading oxAndpoi with AP, Omitting of before péAaves with Bekker. This reference cannot be identified in the Aristotelian Corpus. Camotius at the end of Book 24 states that according to some authorities books on Fire and Light formerly found a place at that point, but are now lost. The reference here is possibly to a lost book on Fire. " Reading émmédauos for éxtroAaiws with Sylburg and Platt. 4 Ls) 6 BOOK XXX. 1 954" possess a large quantity of hot black bile become frenzied or clever or erotic or easily moved to anger and desire, while some become more loquacious. Many too, if this heat approaches the region of the intellect, are affected by 35 diseases of frenzy and possession ; and this is the origin of Sibyls and soothsayers and all inspired persons, when they are affected not by disease but by natural temperament. Maracus, the Syracusan, was actually a better poet when he was out of his mind. Those in whom the excessive heat dies down! to a mean temperature are atrabilious, but 954” they are cleverer and less eccentric and in many respects superior to others either in mental accomplishments or in the arts or in public life. In respect too of facing dangers an atrabilious state causes great variation, in that many of 5 those who are in this condition are inconsistent under the influence of * fears; for they vary from time to time according to the state in which their bodies happen to be in respect to the atrabilious temperament. Now this temperament is itself also inconsistent, just as it produces inconsistency in those suffering from the diseases which it causes; for, like water, it is sometimes cold and sometimes hot. And so the announcement of something alarming, if it occurs at a time when the temperament is rather cold, makes a man cowardly; for it has already prepared a way for the entrance of fear, and fear has a chilling effect (as is shown by the fact that those who are greatly alarmed tremble). If, however, the temperament is inclined to be hot, fear reduces it to a mode- rate temperature and causes a man to be in his senses and 15 unexcited. So too with the despondency which occurs in everyday life (for we are often in the condition of feeling grief without being able to ascribe any cause for it, while at other times we feel cheerful without knowing why), such feelings and those usually called superficial * feelings occur to a slight degree in every one, for something of the force 4 ° 1 Reading énaveOy 4 dyav Oeppdrns with Bywater. The Latin version of T. G. has ab guibus minus (a misprint for #imius) tlle calor remissus ad mediocritatem sit. ? Reading ro for rov, 3 Reading ¢v for pév. [So. too, Richards and Klek.] 4 Reading émimédaa (which is suggested by the contrast with dous 8 cis Bados) instead of the meaningless madad; T. G. renders supertus. 954° PROBLEMATA 20 which produces them is mingled in every one; but those who are thoroughly penetrated by them acquire them as a permanent part of their nature. For as men differ in appearance not because they possess faces but because they possess certain kinds of faces, some handsome, others ugly, others with nothing remarkable about them (those, that is, who are naturally ordinary); so those who possess an atra- as bilious temperament in a slight degree are ordinary, but those who have much of it are quite unlike the majority of people. For, if their condition is quite complete, they are very atrabilious; but, if they possess a mixed temperament, they are men of genius. If they neglect their health, they have a tendency towards the atrabilious diseases, the part of the body affected varying in different people; in some 3¢ persons epileptic symptoms declare themselves, in others apoplectic, in others violent despondency or terrors, in others over-confidence, as happened to Archelaus, King of Macedonia. The force which gives rise to such a condition is the temperament according as it contains heat or cold. If it be cold beyond due measure, it produces groundless 35 despondency; hence suicide by hanging occurs most frequently among the young, but sometimes also among older men. Many men too put an end to themselves after drunkenness, and some atrabilious persons continue in a state of despondency after drinking; for the heat of the 955° wine quenches their natural heat. Heat in the region in which we think and form hopes makes us cheerful; and for this reason all men are eager to drink until they become intoxicated, for abundance of wine makes all men hopeful, just as their youth makes children sanguine ; for old age is 5 despairing but youth is full of hope. There are a few who are seized with despondency while they are drinking, for the same reason as makes others despondent after drinking. Those then who become despondent as the heat in them dies down tend to hang themselves. Hence the young and! the old are more likely to hang themselves; for old age 1o makes the heat die down, and so, in the young, does their ' Omitting } with Richards. BOOK XXX. 1 condition, which is itself natural.! When the heat is extin- guished? suddenly, most men make away with themselves to the general astonishment of all, since they have given no previous sign of any such intention. When the tempera- ment caused by the admixture of black bile is colder, it gives rise, as has been already remarked, to despondency of various kinds, but when it is hotter to cheerfulness. Hence the young are more cheerful, the old more despon- dent, the former being hot and the [atter cold; for old age is a process of cooling. Extinction takes place suddenly from external causes, just as objects which have been heated in the fire are cooled by unnatural processes, as for example when water is poured over hot coals. Hence men some- times commit suicide after drunkenness; for the heat of the wine is introduced from outside, and when it is extinguished the condition which leads to suicide is set up. Also after sexual intercourse most people tend to be despondent; those, however, who emit a considerable amount of excre- ment with the semen become more cheerful, for they are relieved of an excess of excrement and breath and heat. But those who indulge in sexual intercourse® are often more despondent, for by so doing they become cooled, because they lose something which is valuable, as is shown by the fact that the amount of semen which is emitted is not great.* To sum the matter up, owing to the fact that the effect of black bile is variable, atrabilious persons also show varia- 3 tion; for the black bile becomes very hot and very cold. And because it has an effect upon the character (for heat and cold have such an effect to a greater extent than any- thing else in us), like wine mingling in a stronger or weaker form in the body, it gives us our own special characters. Now both wine and black bile are full of breath. And 1 Omitting 7d papatvopevoy Oeppdv as a gloss on ro naévs. 2 ros 8€ oBerrvpévov can hardly stand here, and the required sense is given by the Latin version, which renders guibus autem calor exstinclus subito est. ‘Ne should probably read édcus d€ oBevvurce e€aidprns, of mletoror KTA. ; Cp. below, |. 18. 3 éxeivoc will be equivalent to of adpodioracayres. Possibly €revor should be read; the Latin version has ce/er/. ‘ i.e. it has quality rather than quantity. 955° or 955° PROBLEMATA since it is possible for an abnormal state to be well attempered and in a sense a favourable condition, and since it is possible for the condition to be hotter and then again cold, when it should be so, or to change to the contrary owing’ to excess, the result is that all atrabilious. persons 4o have remarkable gifts, not owing to disease but from natural causes. b Why do we say that we acquire a habit as the result 2 of pursuing some sciences but not others? Are we said to acquire a habit only by such sciences as enable us to make discoveries, since discovery is the result of a habit ? 955 Why is it that of all the animals man has most practical 3 wisdom? Is it because he has the smallest head in pro- portion to his body? Or is it because he is abnormally small in certain parts? For that is why his head is small, and among men those who have smaller heads are wiser than those who have larger heads. tn Why is it that a journey seems longer when we traverse 4 1o it without knowing its length than when we know it, all other conditions being equal?! Is it because to know its length is to be able to connect a number with it? For that which cannot be numbered is the same as the infinite, and the infinite is always more than the determinate. Just as, therefore, if one knows that a journey is a certain length it must necessarily be finite, so if one does not know its length one as it were converts the proposition? and the mind draws a false conclusion, and this journey appears infinite. Furthermore,’ a quantity is determinate, and that which is determinate is a quantity; therefore when a thing does not appear determinate it will appear to be as it were infinite, because that which is of a nature to be 2o determined, if it is nct so, is infinite, and that which appears not to be determined necessarily appears in a sense unlimited. rf on ' This problem has already been dealt with in V. 25. ? See note on 883° 8. * Reading ér: for émei and placing a full stop before it, cp. 883° 9. 5 Why is it that, whereas we become wiser as we grow older, yet the younger we are the more easily we can learn? Is it because God has given us two instruments within ourselves, which enable us to use external instru- ments, providing the body with the hand and the soul 25 with intelligence? For intelligence is among the things implanted in us by nature, being as it were an instrument ; and, whereas the sciences and arts are among the things created by us, intelligence is one of the gifts of nature. So just as we cannot use the hand to the best advantage immediately after birth, but only when nature has perfected it (for the hand can perform its particular function best as 30 age progresses), in like manner of our natural endowments reason is of most assistance to us not in early life but as we get old, and is then at its highest perfection, unless it becomes incapacitated by anything, as may happen also to the other natural endowments. Intelligence comes to us later than the faculty of using the hands, because the instruments 35 used by the intelligence are posterior to those used by the hands. For science is an instrument of the intelligence (for it is useful to the intelligence just as flutes are useful to the flute-player), and many things in nature are instru- ments of the hands, but nature itself and its creations are prior to science. Now it is natural that where the instru- ments are prior, the faculties should also come into being 49 in us first (for it is by using the instruments that we acquire a habit); and the instrument of each faculty is related 956° similarly to that faculty,! and conversely, as the instruments are to one another, so are the faculties of which? they are the instruments to one another.’ Intelligence then for this reason comes to us when we are older; but we learn more 5 quickly when we are young because we do not yet know anything, and when we know more we are no longer so well able to acquire knowledge,‘ just as we remember best 1 j,e. as the instrument of any other faculty is related to that faculty. 2 Reading with Richards otras (&v) ra dpyava. 3 Reading atrd (Richards). The reasoning resembles that of E.N. 1131% 5-7: A’ is to A as B’ is to 4; and, therefore, as A’ is to B’ so is A to B. , £ Reading with Richards ovkér: dpoiws duvdpeba déxerOat krh. 645-25 ix 956° PROBLEMATA what we come upon early in the day, and then, as the day 10 goes on, are less able to remember what happens, because we have come into contact with a number of incidents. Why should man be obeyed more than any other animal? 6 Is it because, as Plato answered to Neocles, he alone of all the animals can count? Or is it because he is the only animal that believes in gods? Or is it because he is the most imitative (for it is for this reason that he can learn) ? 13 Why is it that we feel no pleasure in the contemplation 7 or anticipation of the fact that the interior angles of a triangle are equal to two right angles, and similar geo- metrical truths—except in so far as we enjoy the specula- tion, and the pleasure of this is always the same and would be equally great if these angles were equal to three or more right angles—but we rejoice at the recollection of an Olympic 20 Victory or the sea-battle at Salamis, and at the anticipation of such events, but not in their opposites? Is it because’ we rejoice in such events as having taken place or taking place, but as regards what happens in the course of nature the contemplation of the real state of affairs alone causes us pleasure, whereas actions? give rise to the pleasure caused 25 by their results? Since, then, actions are various, their results too are sometimes painful and sometimes pleasant ; and we avoid and pursue anything in accordance with pleasure and pain. Why do doctors continue their treatment only until 8 health is restored?* For the doctor reduces‘ the patient, and next dries his body, then creates a healthy condition 30 and at that point stops. Is it because® it is impossible for any other condition to be produced from health? Or, if it is possible, is it the task of another science, and will what is produced from health be something different? Now, na * Reading rosovrous 3 #) Ore. 2 Reading prow (H> as Kat’ adnOevav Eyer Oewpia nOovnv povn 1 piv trovet, ai Oe mpagers kth. (W. D. R.). * The text of this chapter is unsatisfactory, but the general sense is clear. * The Teubner text misprints loyvaivar for ioxvaiver. ° Reading mérepov (61+) od« (Richards.) BOOK XXX. 8 956° if health is produced from conditions which are its opposite or are intermediate between health and sickness, it is obvious that the patient is sick because he is too moist or too dry or something else. The doctor, then, from a state of cold creates a less extreme condition and, finally,? a condition of a certain heat or dryness or moisture by change from the 35 opposite or intermediate condition,’ until he achieves a state which is such as to constitute a condition of health; and from this no condition can be produced except one which is intermediate between health and sickness. The possessor of the art can, then, create some new condition; for, when he has reached a certain point, he can retrace his steps and undo his work ; but the doctor's av¢ has nothing to do with such a course, for its aim is always to create a better 40 condition.* So neither the doctor’s art *® nor any other art will create anything else out of health; for either nothing 956” would be being produced,® or else the opposite of health, if the same science were being employed (so too out of a house nothing could make its contrary): nor is there any other art’? which can make anything out of health, except as making a whole out of a part, as, for example, when the cobbler’s art makes a shoe out of the front part of a shoe ; ® for these two things can be produced out of one another by two processes, one of composition and the other of ; destruction. 9 Why is it generally considered that the philosopher is superior to the orator?® Is it because the philosopher spends his time in studying the actual forms of things, while the orator deals with the embodiments of these forms-—the former considering what injustice and tyranny are, the latter urging that a certain individual is unjust or dealing with the character of a tyrant? 10 ' Reading rowirov (dv). * Reading réAos for rekeov: T. G. renders postremo. 3 Deleting the comma after évayriov. 4 Reading Bedriovos (Richards). > Reading date ore idXn ore arn. ® Reading éyivero (av) (Richards). 7 Reading ov® ari addy réxvn (from T. G.). BR Cnavtvees 1392" 3 0 i “ ® A shorter form of this problem occurs in xviii. 5. Ye 956° 30 25 ° 3 By) PROBLEMATA Why are theatrical artists generally persons of bad Io character?! Is it because they partake but little of reason and wisdom,” because most of their life is spent in the pursuit of the arts which provide their daily needs, and because the greater part of their life is passed in incontinence and often in want, and both these things prepare the way to villainy ? Why did the men of old institute prizes for physical 1 contests but none for wisdom? Is it because in all fairness the judges should in the intellectual sphere be either the superiors or at any rate not the inferiors of the competitors ? Now if those who were pre-eminent in wisdom had to compete and a prize had been offered, they would have no one to act as judges.® In athletic contests, however, any- one can judge by merely using his eyes. Further, the original institutor of the games did not wish to propose to the Greeks such a contest t as would be likely to produce violent disputes and enmity ; for when one is rejected or ac- cepted in a contest of bodily strength, men do not altogether harbour any grievance nor feel sentiments of enmity to- wards the judges, but they feel great wrath and indignation against those who decide their relative wisdom or worthless- ness; and this is a quarrelsome and bad state of affairs. Furthermore, the prize ought to be better than the contest ; for in athletic games the prize is more desirable than, and superior to, the contest. But what prize could be found superior to wisdom ? Why is it that man in particular thinks one thing and x2 does another? Is it because the same science dea!s with contraries? Or is it because the reason has many objects, desire one? Now man usually lives by the intelligence, the animals by appetite, passion, and desire. * This problem is quoted by Aulus Gellius (xx. 4) with slight textual variations as from the mpo8dypara eyxv«da of Aristotle. * Reading Adyou (eat) copias, which is supported by Aulus Gellius, who reads Adyou kai pirogodias. 5 Reading atrois. * Reading eé fs for é& Sv. BOOK XXX. 13 g56° 13 Why is it that some prudent men spend their time acquiring rather than using? Is it because they are following the habit of doing so? Or is it due to the pleasure of anticipation ? 14 (Why do those who sleep deeply and most pleasantly see no visions? Is it)' because sensation and thought function because the mind is at rest—hence the word knowledge (€ata7H un) seems to be derived from the fact that knowledge 4° checks the mind (icrno.)—* since when it is in motion and being carried along it can neither have sensation nor 957° think? Hence it is that children and those who are drunk and the insane are senseless; for, owing to the abundance of heat present in them, they are ina state of considerable and very violent movement, but when this ceases they 5 become more sensible; for, when the thought is undis- turbed, they can control it better. Those who have visions during their sleep dream because thought is checked, and in proportion as it is at rest. For the mind is greatly moved during sleep, since, when heat collects in the interior from the rest of the body, there is a very considerable and 10 violent movement ; and it is not true, as most people suppose, that it is most at rest and by itself, and especially so when no vision isseen. The contrary is really true ; for because it is in considerable movement and never rests for a moment, it cannot think. And it is naturally in most movement when ;; it sleeps most pleasantly, because it is then in particular that the greatest amount of heat collects in the interior of the body. That, when it is in motion, the mind cannot think, not only in its waking hours but also in sleep, is proved by the fact that one is least likely to see visions during the 45 sleep which follows the taking of food; now this is the time when the mind is most disturbed owing to the nourishment which has been introduced into the body. A vision occurs when sleep comes over us while we are thinking or letting 1 Reading, with the margin of X® AP, Ava ri ot Babdéws Kat iOurra xabevSovres ovdey eviruov dpaow; 7). This reading is also translated in the Latin version. 2 The word émornpn, which is really derived from ¢niorapat, is here derived from fornu or rather efiornpt (cp. below, 957° 6). 957" dS tm 30 35 PROBLEMATA things pass before our eyes. Hence we usually see things which we are doing or intend or wish to do; for it is on these things that our thoughts and fancies most often dwell. And the better men are, the better are their dreams, because they think of better things in their waking hours, while those who are less well disposed in mind or body have worse dreams. For there is a close correspondence between the disposition of the body and the images of our dreams; for, when a man is ill, the ideas proposed by his thoughts are bad, and furthermore, owing to the disturbance which reigns in his body, his mind cannot rest. It is for this reason that atrabilious persons start in their sleep, because, owing to the excess of heat, the mind is in a state of too much movement, and, when the movement is too violent, they cannot sleep. 957° BOOK XXXI PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH THE EYES 1 Why does rubbing the eye stop sneezing?! Is it because by this means evaporation is given to the moisture? For the eye sheds tears after friction, and sneezing is due to an 4o abundance of moisture. Or is it because the lesser heat is 957° destroyed by the greater? Now the eye when it is rubbed acquires more heat than is contained in the nose; and for this reason even if we rub the nose itself the sneezing stops. 2 Why can one see more accurately with one eye than 5 with both eyes? Is it because more movements are set up by the two eyes,” as certainly happens in those who squint ? The movement of the two eyes, therefore, is not one, but that of a single eye is one; therefore one sees less accurately with both eyes. 3. Why do the eyes tend to become very red in those who are angry, and the ears in those who are ashamed? Is it to because the eyes are chilled in those who are ashamed (for ‘shame dwells in the eyes’), so that* they cannot look straight in front of them? (Cowardice also involves a cooling in the same region.) Now the heat* travels in a direction away from the forepart of the head, and the ears are situated in the opposite part of the head, and therefore they redden most under the emotion of shame.’ But under 15 1 This problem is verbally repeated in xxxiii. 8; cp. also xxxiii. 2. 2 Reading mAeiovs ai (Platt). ® Reading (ev dpOadrpois yap aidws) (aor) dvtiBdérew KTr., dor’ having probably fallen out by haplography owing to the aids preceding. The quotation is from the CvesPhontes of Euripides, Nauck? fr. 457. 4 Reading 1d beppoy (cp 961% 11) for rd émoGev. The Latin version of T. G. has calor autem in partem transit adversam, &c. The meaning will be that under the influence of shame the eyes become cold, and therefore the heat is driven backwards and so reddens the ears. ® Cp. xxxii. 1, 8, and 12, where additional reasons are given. 957° PROBLEMATA the influence of provocation assistance is sent’ to the more sensitive and easily affected part,? as though it were suffer- ing violence; for in those who are frightened it fails alto- gether there. Why is it that, if one eye is held down, the other has a 4 more intent gaze? Is it because the origins of sight in the two eyes are connected at one source? So when one eye 20 moves, the common source of sight is also set in motion ; and when this moves, the other eye moves also. When one eye therefore is held down, all the movement will be concentrated on the other eye, which consequently will be able to gaze more intently. Why is it that those who are blind from birth do not 5 become bald? Is it because the eye is injured by the presence of a large quantity of moisture in the region of 25 the head? This is why they cauterize the veins round the temples of those who suffer from running at the eyes (thus closing the ducts through which the humours flow), and scrape the head, cutting into the skin upon it. Since, therefore, it is the excretion gathering in the head which injures the eyes, this same excretion by collecting in too great quantities in the head might prevent the eyes® from 30 Originally coming into being at all. And since the hair grows from excretions, and the excretion in the head of those who are blind from birth is abundant, it is only natural that they are not bald. Why are those whose eyes protrude affected more than 6 others by smoke? Is it because smoke reaches the pro- jecting parts most quickly ? 35 Why is it that we can turn the gaze of both eyes simul- 7 taneously towards the right and the left and in the direction of the nose, and that of one eye to the left or to the right, but cannot direct them simultaneously one to the right and the other to the left ?4 Similarly, we can direct them downwards and upwards; for we can turn them simultaneously in the ‘ i.e. there is a rush of heat. ? i.e. the eyes. * The Teubner text misprint airovs for abrovs. * i.e. outwards away from the nose. BOOK XXXI. 7 957” same direction, but not separately. Is it because the eyes, 40 though two, are connected at one point,! and under such conditions, when one extremity moves, the other must follow 958* in the same direction, for one extremity becomes the source of movement to the other extremity? Since, therefore, it is impossible for one thing to move simultaneously in contrary directions, it is impossible also for the eyes to do so; for the extremities would move in opposite directions if one moved up and the other down, and the source of the 5 movement of both of them would have to make correspond- ing movements, which is impossible.?- The distortion of the eyes is due to the fact that the eyeballs possess a moving principle and turn, to a certain extent,” upwards and downwards and sideways. When, therefore, being so placed that they are in a similar position to one another and midway between an upward and a downward and an to oblique movement,‘ the two eyeballs catch the visual ray on corresponding points of themselves, they are not dis- torted and their gaze is quite mobile ® (though when ® they catch the visual rays on corresponding points of them- selves, although the vision is not distorted it does not follow that the position of the eyes is the same.)' Yet, if you turn up the whites of the eyes, part of the pupil is obscured, as for example in those who are about to sneeze ; others have oblique vision, madmen for example ; in others the gaze is turned towards the nose, as in tragic masks and in those who are nervous, for their glance denotes concen- trated thought. But those who keep their gaze fixed on one point without ® having their eyeballs similarly situated, or who have them similarly situated but do not keep them ~ & 1 Cp. above, 957° 19 ff. ® The movement of each eye corresponds with a movement of their common point of connexion; if, therefore, the two eyes move simul- taneously in contrary directions, the point of connexion must make two contrary movements at the same time, which is impossible. * Reading pexpt rov. * Placing the comma after mAdyeov instead of kivetr@ar. Reading xwnrol: T. G. renders modzles, Reading dca 8 (tv), as suggested by the Teubner editors. The point of this sentence seems to be that the previous proposition is not convertible. ® Reading py for uy. The Teubner text misprints tpoiws for OMOLWS, ayoaog 958° 20 30 35 958” PROBLEMATA fixed on the same point, both these have distorted vision ; they therefore scowl and screw up the eyes, for they try to fix one eyeball in the same position as the other; so they leave one eye alone and try to bring the other into position. If the vision of both eyes does not rest on the same point,! they must be distorted; for the same thing s happens as in those to whom, when they press under the eye,?.a single object appears double, for in these too the source of vision is disturbed. If, therefore, the eye is moved upwards, the terminus of the vision is lowered; if down- wards, it is raised. And if the position of one eye is changed, the object of the vision therefore seems to move up or down, because the vision also does so, but it does not appear double unless the vision of both eyes is in use. A similar distortion * occurs also in one whose eyes do not correspond,‘ causing him to see double; but this is due to the position of the vision, because it is not in the middle of the eye. Why do those who are short-sighted write in small 8 characters?’ For it is strange that those who have not acute vision should do what requires such vision. Is it because small things appear large when they are near at hand, and the short-sighted hold what they are writing close to their eyes? Or is it because they screw up their eyes when they write? For owing to the feebleness of their sight, if they write with their eyes wide open, the vision, being dispersed, can only see dimly ; but when the eyes are screwed up, it all falls on one point, and, since it forms a small angle, it necessarily causes the writing of small characters. 1 Reading cata ratro with Bussemaker. * The full phrase would be troBaddovar rov Sdxtudov md roy dpOarpdy § cp. de Insomnits 441” 31, and Aer, 1063" 8. The reference is to the se as of slightly displacing the eyeball by pressing the finger under it. * Putting a full stop after doc and reading kat 8:aarpod) tovavrn. * érepdpOudpos in Classical Greek means ‘ having only one eye’; in later Greek it can mean ‘having different eyes’; see L. and S. s.v. and cp. érepdyhavkos, érepdrous, &c. 5 Cp. below, chapter 15. BOOK XXXI. 9 958° g Why can some people see more clearly after suffering from ophthalmia ? Is it because their eyes are thus purged? 5 For often the external thickening blocks the vision, but is dissolved when the eye discharges. Hence also it is bene- ficial that the eyes should be made to smart, with onion for example ;' but a substance of the opposite kind, such as marjoram, has an adverse effect.” Io Why are those who see with only one eye less liable to disturbance of the vision? Is it because their mind is less 10 affected, and so the disturbance of the vision is less felt ? tM Why do objects appear double to those whose eyes are distorted ?* Is it because the movement * does not reach the same point on each of the eyes? So the mind thinks that it sees two objects when it really sees one twice. A similar phenomenon occurs if one crosses the fingers ; for a single object appears to be two to a single person 15 touching it twice.’ 12 Why is it that the senses on the right side of the body are not superior to those on the left side, but in all other respects the right side of the body is superior?® Is it a question of habit, namely, that we accustom ourselves immediately to perceive equally well with the senses on both sides of the body? And it seems that the superiority of the right-hand parts of the body is due to habit, for we can accustom ourselves to be ambidextrous. Or is it 20 because to feel sensation is to be passive, and the right parts of the body are superior in that they are more active and less passive than the left? 13. Why is it that in all other respects the right side of the body is superior, but in sensation the two sides are alike ?’ 1 Cp. 95911, 12. It seems necessary to read kpoppio for kpdppvor. 2 The reading here is uncertain, but the sense is clear. § Reading Steorpappévors (cp. #20) for ducrapevos, which can hardly bear the meaning given by Bonitz (/udex 196% 22) of distractis oculis. * i.e. of the visual ray from the object seen. 5 This phenomenon is referred to again in 95915; cp. also AZet. 1o11* 33, and de Somniis 460” 20 ff. It appears necessary to read arTopeva. ® Cp. below, chapters 13, 18, and 29. 7 Cp. chapters 12, 18, and 29. 958°” 25 30 ww or 959° LSet 1 fe) PROBLEMATA Is it because we habitually practise the equal use of sensa- tion on both sides? Moreover, to feel sensation is to be passive, and the superiority of the right side of the body is shown in activity, not in passivity. Why is physical exercise detrimental to acuteness of 14 vision? Is it because it makes the eye dry, as it does the rest of the body? Now dryness hardens every kind of skin; so it has that effect also on the skin covering the pupil. This is also the reason why the aged have not acute vision; for their eyes have a hard and wrinkled surface, and so the vision is obscured. Why do the short-sighted, though they have not acute 15 vision, write in small characters?! Yet it is characteristic of acute vision to see what is small. Is it because, having weak sight, they screw up their eyes? For when the sight proceeds forth in a concentrated glance it sees better, but when the eye is wide open its vision is dispersed. So owing to the feebleness of their sight they bring their eyelids close together, and, because their vision proceeds from a small area, they see magnitude on a small scale, and the characters which they write are on the same scale as their vision. Why do the short-sighted bring their eyelids close 16 together when they look at anything? Is it due to the weakness of their sight, so that, just as a man in looking at a distant object puts his hand up to his eyes, they close the eyelids to look at objects near at hand? They do so in order that the visicn may proceed forth in a more concen- trated form, since it passes through a narrower opening, and that it may not be immediately dispersed by passing out through a wide aperture. A wider vision, however, covers a larger field. Why is it that if the eye be moved sideways a single 17 object does not appear double? Is it because the source of sight is still in the same line? It can only appear double when the line is altered upwards or downwards; and it * Cp. above, chapter 8. BOOK XXXI. 17 959° makes no difference if it is altered sideways, unless it is also at the same time altered upwards or downwards.’ Why, then, is it possible in sight for a single object to appear double if the eyes are in a certain position in relation to one another, but impossible in the other senses ? Is it not possible also in touch that one thing becomes ? 15 two if the fingers are crossed?* But with the other senses this does not happen, because they do not perceive objects which extend to a distance away from them, nor‘ are they duplicated like the eyes. It takes place for the same reason” as it does with the fingers; for then the touch is imitating the sight.° 18 Why is it that, though in the rest of the body the left side is weaker than the right, this is not true of the eyes, but the sight of both eyes is equally acute?’ Is it because the parts of the body on the right side are superior in activity but not in passivity, and the sight is passive? ww» ° 19 Why is it that when we keep our gaze fixed on objects of other colours our vision deteriorates, whereas it improves if we gaze intently on yellow and green objects, such as 25 herbs and the like? Is it because we are least able to gaze intently on white and black (for they both mar the vision), and the above-mentioned colours come midway between these,* so that, the conditions of vision being of the nature of a mean, our sight is not weakened thereby but improved ? Perhaps, just as we take harm from over-violent physical 3° exertion but moderate exercise is beneficial, so too is it with the sight; for we over-exert the sight if we gaze intently on solid objects, but we do not strain it in looking at objects which contain moisture, since there is nothing in them to resist the vision. Now green things are only moderately solid and contain a considerable amount of moisture; they 35 1 Reading édy pi) dua kai tivo (i) Kato). 2 We should perhaps read qbuirerae for yiverat. ° Cp. above, 958” 14, 15, and note. * Reading ovre for ovde. 5 Reading, with Richards, d:a ravro. i.e. the two crossed fingers resemble the two eyes. 6 iCpachaplers) 12.103, 20: 8 Black and white being contraries (cp. de Sensu 445° 25, &c.). a 959 40 959” 5 sie) 15 PROBLEMATA therefore do not harm the sight at all, but compel it to rest upon them, because the admixture of their colouring is well attempered to the vision. Why is it that we see other things better with both eyes, 20 but we can judge of the straightness! of lines of writing better with one eye, putting it close to the letters? Do both eyes falling on the same point cause confusion, as the writers on optics say, whereas, when we look with one eye, straightness is more apparent to the straight vision, just as it is when a measuring rod is used? Why does smoke make the eyes smart more than any 21 other part of the body? Is it because they alone are very weak, since the inner parts of the body are always the weakest? (This is shown by the fact that vinegar and anything pungent causes not the outer but the inner flesh to smart, because? the latter is the rarest flesh in the body and contains most pores.) For the vision finds its exit through certain pores, and so what causes most stinging within is drawn away * from the outer flesh. The onion too has a similar effect and anything else which causes the eye to smart, and of liquids olive-oil more than any other, because it is composed of very small particles and so sinks in through the pores. Vinegar is used as a medicament for the rest of the flesh. Why is it that the eye, aithough it is very weak, is the only 92 part of the body which does not feel the cold? Is it because the eye is of a fatty consistency and does not partake of the nature of flesh, and such substances are unaffected by the cold? For if the eve is really a fire,* this is not the reason ' Reading 7d S¢ «td with X, * The Latin version implies a new solution beginning at this point, which would necessitate a full stop after évrés and the reading # ére dpatéraroy (apaidratov being read by several MSS., including Y#). This second question is, however, hardly likely, since, where alternatives are offered, the first is almost invariably introduced by mérepoy, whereas here in |. 5 we have i) éru. * dmominre: is certainly corrupt: the Latin version of T.G. has ttague guod his mordacissimum est, ceteris corporis partibus obvium subire densiora non potest sed perreptat et decidit, which implies a longer text. * Cp. below, 960? 32, and de Sensu 437% 22 ff., where this view, at BOOK XXXI. 22 959” why it does not feel cold, for its fire is not at any rate of such a character as to engender heat. 23 Why are tears warm when we let them fall in weeping, 20 but cold when we shed them owing to an affection of the eyes? Is it because that which is unconcocted is cold, while that which is concocted is hot? Now every malady certainly proceeds from lack of concoction, and the tears of those whose eyes are affected are unconcocted and there- fore cold. It is for this reason that physicians regard cold 25 sweating as a sign of serious illness, while on the contrary they consider that hot sweating tends to get rid of disease.! For if the excretion is abundant, the internal heat cannot concoct it,” so that it must necessarily be cold; but when it is scanty, the internal heat prevails over it. Now all diseases 30 are caused by excretions,® 24 Why is it that, though the parts of the body on the right side are more easily moved, the left eye can be closed more easily than the right? Is it because the parts of the body on the left always contain more moisture,* and things that 35 are moist naturally close up more easily ?° 25 Whyisit that though botha short-sighted and an old man are affected by weakness of the eyes, the former places an object, if he wishes to see it, near the eye, while the latter holds it at a distance? Is it because they are afflicted with different forms of weakness? For the old man cannot see 4o the object; he therefore removes the object at which he is g60* looking to the point at which the vision of his two eyes meets, expecting them to be able to see it best in this position;® and this point is at a distance. The short- sighted man, on the other hand, can see the object but cannot proceed to distinguish which parts of the thing which Empedocles appears at times to hint, is criticized at great length. 1 Cp. 8704 15 ff., and note. ) oa 2 §vvavra in the Teubner text is a misprint for dvvara. SUEp:.8507 1. erp, OOLw2: ° The following sentence «ira... xa’ avrd appears to be hopelessly corrupt. The Latin version of T.G, apparently translates a different text. 6 Reading dr éxei (Richards). 960* PROBLEMATA at which he is looking are concave and which convex, 5 but he is deceived on these points. Now concavity and convexity are distinguished by means of the light which they reflect ; so at a distance the short-sighted man cannot discern how the light? falls on the object seen; but near at hand the incidence of light can be more easily perceived. Why is man alone, or at any rate more than the other 26 animals, liable to distortion of vision?? Is it because he 10 alone, or more than the other animals, suffers from epilepsy in his youth,’ at which time distortion of the vision always begins? Why are men alone among the animals liable to distor- 27 tion of the vision?* Is it because they have the smallest distance between their eyes and their eyes are in a straight 15 line, so that any perversion is very obvious? Or is it because the eyes of the other animals tend to be of one colour only, and if the eyes were of uniform colour there could be no distortion? Or is it because man alone in the animal world is liable to epilepsy, and epilepsy, whenever it occurs, causes distortion in the eyes as in the other parts of the body? Distortion, however, sometimes occurs quite ao late in life, namely, in those to whom the illness comes late. Why is it that we can see better against the light of 28 a lamp or the sun, if we place the hand in front of the light? Is it because the light of the sun or of the lamp fall- ing on our vision makes it weaker by its excess of brightness, since by this excess it destroys those very things® which 25 are akin to it?® But if the light is shaded by the hand, it does not hurt the sight, and the object seen is equally in the light ; so the sight sees’ better and the object seen is just as visible. Reading rv avyny for tn avyn with Bonitz. This problem is more fully treated in the next chapter. Cp. de Somno 457* 3-10 and J. I. Beare’s note. Cp. above, chapter 26. Reading kai aira ra ovyyevn (Richards). i.e. the brightness of the eye, which is a fire; cp. 959 17-19 and e. 7 Reading 6pa for dpa (Richards). 1 2 3 4 5 6 not BOOK XXXI. 29 960° 29 Why is there a difference between the left and the right hand ' and foot, while this is not so with the eyes and ears ?? 30 Is it because the elements, when they are pure, show no variation, but variations occur where the elements are com- pounded? Now these senses consist of pure elements—the sight of fire* and the hearing of air. 1 Reading mpos ra de£ia ra aptorepa. 2/Gp.uchapters 12, 13, 15. 3 Cp. above, 959” 17 and note. 645-25 ZL BOOKW AX PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH THE EARS Wy is it that, though the ears are the most bloodless part I of the face, they are most affected by blushing in those who feel shame?! Is it because extraneous moisture naturally makes its way most easily into a void, and so, when the moisture is dissolved by the heat engendered in those who 40 feel shame, it collects in the ears? Or is it because the ears 960” are near the temples, where the moisture most collects ? Now under the emotion of shame the moisture flows into the face and causes blushing. But the ears have less depth than any other part of the face and are naturally very warm and fresh coloured, unless they have been long numbed 5 by the cold ; they are then the most fresh coloured of all the parts of the face, and so the heat, when it is dispersed, being nearest the surface in the ears, makes them red. Why is it that the ear-drums of divers burst in the sea? 2 Is it because the ear, as it fills with water, is subject to vio- lent pressure, because it retains the breath? Surely, if this 10 is the reason, the same thing ought to happen in the air. Or is it because a thing breaks more easily if it does not yield, and more readily under pressure from what is hard than from what is soft ? Now that which is inflated is less yielding, and the ears, as has been said, are inflated because the breath is retained in them; and so the water, which is harder than the air, when it presses upon them bursts them. 15 Why do divers tie sponges round their ears?? Is it in 3 order that the sea may not rush violently in and burst the ear-drums? For thus the ears do not become full, as they do when the sponges are removed. 1 Cp. above, xxxi. 3, and below, chapters 8 and 12. 2 Cp. above, chapter 2. 4 Why is the dirt in the ears bitter ? Is it because sweat is corrupt? It is, therefore, a salty, corrupt substance ; and that which is corrupt and salty is bitter. 20 5 Why do sponge-divers slit their ears and nostrils? Is it in order that the breath may pass more freely? For it is by this way that the breath seems to pass out ;? for it is said that they suffer more from difficulty of breathing by being unable to expel the breath, and they are relieved 25 when they can as it were vomit the breath forth. It is strange, then, that they cannot achieve respiration for the sake of its cooling effect; this appears to be a greater necessity. Is it not quite natural that the strain should be greater when the breath is held, since then they are swollen and distended? But there appears to be a spontaneous passage of the breath outwards; and we must next consider 30 whether breathing inwards is so also. Apparently it is; for they enable the divers to respire equally well by letting down a cauldron ;* for this does not fill with water, but retains the air, for it is forced down straight into the water ; since, if it inclines at all from an upright position, the water flows in.* 6 Why do some people cough when they scrape their ears ? 35 Is it because the hearing is connected with the same duct as the lungs and the wind-pipe? This is shown by the fact that, if these parts are filled up, a man becomes deaf.’ When, therefore, heat is set up by the friction, moisture is caused by melting and flows downwards from the duct® into the wind-pipe and causes coughing. 7 Why isit that, ifa hole is pierced in the left ear, it generally 4° closes up more quickly than in the right ear? It is for this 961" 1 Apollonius, J/zvad. 28, seems to be referring to this problem, which he cites as occurring év rois puarkois mpoBAnpact, 2 Omitting dvatepvovor d€ . . . evrrvotay, which is not rendered by T. G., and is almost certainly a gloss on onas eumvovorepnt dot, Also moveiv yap xtQ. Clearly explains e£tévac doxet 70 mvedpa and should follow immediately after it. 3 j,e. used as a diving-bell. way @ + Reading dpdo0d yap (av) oriody mapeyk0n, ciopet (W. 1) la) 5 Reading dri, (av) dvamAnparrat, [kal] yivovrat éveoi (W.D.R.). 6 Reading mépov with AP. Z 2 961* PROBLEMATA reason that women call the right ear the ‘ male’ and the left the ‘female’. Is it because the left parts of the body are moister! and hotter, and such things close up very quickly ? This is why green plants grow together again; and why 5 wounds close up more readily in the young than in the old. That the parts on the left side of the body are moister is shown by the fact that they are softer and, generally speak- ing, partake rather of feminine characteristics.” Why is it that in those who feel shame the extremities of 8 the ears turn red, but in those who are angry it is the eyes that do so?’ Is it because shame is a cooling in the eyes 10 accompanied by fear, so that the heat naturally leaves the eyes? So, when it withdraws thence, it travels to the region best adapted to receive it, and this is the extremity of the ears ; for the region of the face is otherwise bony. Inthose who are angry the heat travels in the other direction and 15 makes itself most manifest in the eyes owing to their white colour. Why is it that -buzzing in the ears ceases if one makes ag sound? Is it because the greater sound drives out the less ? Why is it that, if water has flowed into the ear, one pours Io olive oil in, though the moisture in the ear cannot pass out through another liquid? Is it because the oil floats on the surface of the water and, owing to the adhesive nature of the oil, the water clings to it when it comes out, the object being to make the water come out with the oil? Or is it in order that the ear may be lubricated and the water there- ‘fore come out? For oil being smooth acts as a lubricant. 2 ° Why is it that the * ear-drums of divers are less liable to 1 burst if they pour olive-oil beforehand into them?5 Does wv» we : Cp. above, 959” 33. ; The text makes no sense, since it merely repeats as a onpeiov what has already been assumed in 1. 2 above. The right sense is certainly that of the Latin version of T.G., axgumentum partes sinistras esse humidiores guod molliores sunt atgue efeminatiores, and we must read onpetov (be Ore vypa paddoy (dre padakwrepa) Kai dws OnArvKaTEpa Ta aploTepa, ° Cp. chapters 1 and 12 and xxxi. 3. " Reading (ra) &ra as in 960? 8. ’ Cp. above, chapters 2 and 3. BOOK XXXII. 1 961" the reason for their bursting already mentioned! still hold good, but the oil poured into the ears cause the sea-water, which subsequently enters the ear, to glide smoothly over its surface, just as happens on the exterior parts of the bodies of those who anoint themselves? The sea-water gliding smoothly along does not make a violent impact upon the inside of the ear, and so does not break the drum. 30 12 Why is it that, although the ears are the most bloodless part of the face, they turn red in those who feel shame ?? Is everything carried to that part which is most devoid of it? Now in a man who feels shame the blood seems to be carried upwards in a heated condition ; it therefore passes” into the part which is most devoid of it and causes it to become red. The same thing happens also in the cheeks. A further reason is that the skin of the ears, which is tightly 35 stretched, is very thin and therefore very transparent.‘ 13. Why is it that no onescrapes out the ear while yawning ? Is it because, when one yawns, the drum of the ear, by means of which he hears, is inflated? That this is so is shown by the fact that one hears least well while yawning ; ° for the breath, as happens also in the mouth,° finds its way 40 into the interior of the ears and thrusts the membrane out- wards and prevents the sound from entering. If, therefore, 961° one touches the seat of hearing when in this condition in such a way as to scrape it, one might cause considerable damage to it; for the impact would be against a resisting and unyielding surface inflated by the breath,’ and it is obvious that the skin * andthe membrane are far from being 5 solid; and so great pain is caused and a wound might result. * 960° 9 ff. ® Cp. above, chapters 1 and 8 and xxxi. 3. ’ Reading with Bonitz eis ody 7d kevoraroy Cidv) epvOpiav morei. 4 Reading 6v atrod (Richards). 5 Cp. 902” 9, goa” 16. ® Putting a comma instead of a full stop after ordya. 7 Cp. above, 960? fo ff. 8 Reading 716 d€ (1d) d€ppa (Richards). 961 igo) 15 20 25 BOOK Xee iit PROBLEMS CONCERNING THE NOSE WHY is it that sneezing stops hiccuping but does not1 stop eructation?! Is it because they are not affections of the same region, but eructation is a cooling and lack of concoction in the stomach,? while hiccuping is a similar affection of breath and moisture in the region of the lungs? Now the regions about the head (the ears,® for example) are closely connected with the lungs. This is proved by the facts that deafness and dumbness are found together, and that the diseases of the ears become diverted into affections of the lungs; also in some persons coughing results when the ears are scratched. That there is a connexion between the region of the nose, in which the sneeze takes place, and the lungs is shown by the fact that both share in respiration; and so, while the nose sneezes when that region becomes hot, the lower region,? where hiccuping takes place, also sneezes in sympathy. Now heat causes concoction; hence vinegar stops hiccups, as also does holding the breath if the hiccup is only slight, for it heats the breath which is constricted.’ So too in sneezing the counter-constriction of the breath has this effect and expiration takes place properly and from the upper region ; for it is impossible to sneeze without expiring. The impetus then dispels the enclosed breath which is the cause of the hiccup. Why is it that if, when one is about to sneeze, one rubs 2 the eye, one sneezes less?7 Is it because what causes the sneeze is a kind of heat, and friction produces heat, which, 30 Owing to the close proximity to the eyes of the region in Cp. below, chapters 5, 13, and 17. Which is too far away to be affected. Reading ra @ra for rots dot. 4 Cp. 960? 35. i.e. the lungs. § Reading (10) xarexdpevov. Cp. chapter 8 and xxxi. 1. a awwne BOOK XXXIII. 2 961° which the sneeze occurs, destroys the other heat, just as the lesser fire fades away before the greater ? 3 Why is it that one generally sneezes twice, and not once or many times? Is it because there are two nostrils? The channel, therefore, through which the breath passes is 35 divided between the two.! 4 Why is it that one sneezes more after one has looked at the sun? Is it because the sun engenders heat and so causes movement, just as does tickling the nose with a feather? For both have the same effect; by setting up movement they cause heat and create breath more quickly from the moisture ; and it is the escape of this breath which 40 causes sneezing. 5 Why do sneezing and holding the breath and vinegar 962° stop hiccups ?* Does sneezing, since it is a displacement of the lower breath, act in the same sort of way as medi- cines which, though applied to the upper part of the body,’ affect the lower part of the stomach? Holding the breath stops weak hiccups, because the slight impetus of the 5 breath which comes forth represses and stifles and com- pletely dispels the hiccup, just as happens in coughing, which? ceases if you hold it back. Vinegar stops hiccuping because by its heat it vaporizes the surrounding moisture, which prevents eructation ; for eructation takes place when the moisture in the upper part of the stomach is vaporized to and concocted, whereas hiccuping occurs when by the action of moisture breath is retained in an excessive quan- tity in the region of the lungs; for this, gaining impetus and being unable to break through, causes a spasm, and this spasm is called a hiccup. Hence hiccuping seizes those who are cold, because the cold causes the moisture to acquire consistency ° from the breath, and the rest of the breath, being still ° enclosed, gives a leap, and its movement is hiccuping. 5 1 Reading xaé? éxdrepov ; the MSS. read xaé’ €repa. 2 Cp. chapters 1, 13, and 17. 3 i.e. through the mouth. 4 Reading wept ry Bnya (7), edv KrA. 5 Reading cuvecravar (Y® reads cvmordy), since mot requires an infinitive. ® Punctuating mvedparos’ Ere mepthapPBavouevor KTA, 962" PROBLEMATA Why do we sometimes pour cold water over a person’s 6 face when his nose is bleeding? Is it because the heat is 20thus driven inwards? If, therefore, the blood is near the surface, it tends to liquefy it. Why do we regard sneezing as divine,’ but not coughing 7 or running at the nose?” Is it because it comes from the most divine part of us, namely, the head, which is the seat of reasoning? Or is it because the other affections are the results of disease, but sneezing is not ? 25 Why does rubbing the eye stop sneezing ?° Is it because 8 by this means evaporation is given to the moisture? For the eye sheds tears after friction, and sneezing is due to an abundance of moisture. Or is it because the lesser heat is destroyed by the greater? Now the eye when rubbed 30 acquires more heat than is contained in the nose; and for this reason, even if we rub the nose itself, the sneezing stops. Why is it that the emission of other kinds of breath, of 9 wind, for example, and of eructation are not regarded as sacred, but that of a sneeze is so regarded ?* Is it because of the three regions of the body—the head, the thorax, and 35 the lower stomach—the head is the most divine?) Now wind is breath from the lower stomach and eructation is from the upper stomach, but sneezing is from the head ; because, therefore, this region is most sacred, the breath also from it is reveredassacred. Or is it because all discharges of breath show that the above-mentioned parts are in a 4o better state generally (for without any discharge of excre- 962” ment ® the breath in its passage out lightens the body), and so too sneezing shows that the region of the head is in a healthy condition and capable of concoction? For when the heat in the head overcomes the moisture, the breath turns into a sneeze. This is why men test the dying by Reading @etov (Richards). This problem is dealt with at greater length in chapter 9. This chapter is verbally identical with xxxi. 1; cp. also chapter 2. Cp. chapter 7. Cp. the impersonal use of diaxwpeiv in Xen. Axnaé. iv. 8. 20 Kitw dtex@per avrois (‘they were suffering from diarrhoea’), and Pilato, Phaedrus 268 B. 3 2 3 4 5 applying something which will cause sneezing, with the idea that, if this does not affect them, their case is indeed 5 desperate. Thus sneezing is revered as sacred as being a sign of health in the best and most sacred region of the body, and is regarded as a good omen. Io Why does man sneeze most of all animals?! Is it because in him the ducts are wide through which the breath and scent * pass in? For it is with these when they are full 10 of breath that he sneezes. That these ducts are wide is shown by the fact that man has a weaker sense of smell than any other animal, and those who have narrow ducts ° have a keener sense of smell. If, therefore, the moisture, the evaporation of which causes sneezing, enters in larger quantities and more often into wide ducts, and man more than any other animal has such ducts, he might naturally be expected to sneeze * more often. Or is it because? his 15 nostrils are particularly short, and so the heated moisture can quickly become breath and be expelled, whereas in other animals owing to the length of their nostrils it cools before it can evaporate? 1 Why is sneezing between midnight and midday regarded asa bad thing, but between midday and midnight as a good 20 thing? Is it because sneezing seems rather to check those who are commencing anything and are at the beginning? And so, if it occurs when we are intending or beginning something, we are deterred from action.® Now early morning and the period after midnight are as it were a new beginning; therefore we carefully avoid sneezing so as not to hinder the action which has been begun.’ But towards 25 evening * and up to midnight there is as it were an ending 1 This problem is almost verbally identical with x. 18. The subject is more fully treated in x. 54. 2 Reading dcp) for piun (Bussemaker), cp. 892? 23. Reading Aemrdémopo for Aerrot mépor (Bussemaker). Reading mrapyvowro for rrapyurto, Reading 4 dr: for daous, cp. 892” 30. drav péNwow apyopuevors cupBnvar of the MSS. gives no sense, and drav péddNovew f) 4pyouevors guuBy or something similar must be read, The Latin version of T. G. renders: zfague cum rem agere pergimus atgue inter initia sternuisse acciderit. T Reading (15) apynyevor. 8 Reading SeiAnv (Richards). aa Ff & 962° PROBLEMATA and the contrary of the earlier period, so that the same thing that was undesirable becomes, under contrary conditions, desirable. Why do the oid sneeze with difficulty? Is it because the 12 ducts through which the breath passes have become par- tially closed? Or is it because they are no longer able to 30 raise the breath! up with ease, and, when they have done so, they expel it downwards with a violent effort? Why is it that, if one holds the breath, hiccuping ceases ? ? 13 Is it because hiccuping is the result of cooling (hence those who are frightened and those who are chilled hiccup), whereas the breath when it is held back warms the in- terior region? 35 Why do the deaf usually talk through their noses ?* Is it 14 because they suffer from lung trouble, since deafnessis simply a congestion in the region of the lungs? The voice there- fore does not easily find a passage ; but, just as the breath of those who are panting or gasping accumulates owing to their inability to exhale it, so it is with the voice of the 4o deaf. It therefore forces its way even through the nostrils, 963° and, as it does so, owing to the friction, causes the echoing sound. For talking through the nose takes place when the upper part of the nose, where the openings to the roof of the mouth are situated, becomes hollow in form; it then resounds like a bell, its lower part being narrow. 5 Why is sneezing the only phenomenon which does not 15 occur when we are asleep, but takes place practically always while we are awake? Is it because sneezing is the result * of heat of some kind causing motion in the region from which the sneeze proceeds (and this is why we look up at the sun when we want to sneeze *), whereas ® when we are asleep the heat is driven inwards?? This is why the lower 19 parts become warm in those who are asleep, and the large " Reading atré for ra (Richards). 2 Cp. chapters 1, 5, and 17. ° The same problem is differently treated in xi. 2 and 4. * Omitting kul after yiverai. SAEpeoole so tte ° Reading kadevddvrwy d¢ for (i}) drt kabevddvrer, the Sé being implied by the preceding pév. [Bussemaker confirms this reading from P7od, fned. (in his edition) ii. 40.] “Cp. 86732: BOOK PXX XII: 15 963° quantity of breath which collects there is the cause of the emission of semen during sleep.! It is only natural, there- fore, that we do not sneeze; for when the heat (which naturally sets in motion the moisture in the head, the evaporation * of which causes the sneeze) is withdrawn from the head, it is only natural that the phenomenon which it causes does not take place. Men break wind and eruct 15 rather than sneeze when they are asleep,® because, as the region about the stomach becomes hot during sleep, the moisture there becomes vaporized and, as it does so, is carried into the nearest parts ; for it is thrust together there by the breath engendered during sleep. For a man who is 20 asleep is better able to hold than to expel the breath ; there- fore he collects the heat within him. Now when a man holds his breath he forces it downwards; for a downward course is unnatural to the breath, and that is why it is difficult to hold the breath. The same thing is the cause of 25 sleep also; for since waking is movement and this move- ment occurs to a great extent in the organs of sensation while we are awake, it is plain that we should go to sleep when our organs of sense are at rest. And since it is fire which creates movement in our parts, and this during sleep 30 is driven inwards and leaves the region of the head, where the seat of sensation is situated, our organs of sense would then be most at rest, and this must be the cause of sleep. 16 Why do people shiver after sneezing and passing urine? ° Is it because by both actions the veins are emptied of the warm air which was previously in them, and, when they are 35 empty, other air enters from without colder than that which was previously in the veins ; and such air entering in causes shivering ? 17 Why does sneezing stop hiccuping?° Is it because hic- cuping (unlike eructation, which comes from the stomach "Cp 867" 9. * Reading with Sylburg and Bekker eEaepoupevov, 3 Omitting 4 éypnyopdéres as a mistaken gloss on paddov. The position of ai épev'yovra: after mrdpyuyra is very awkward and perhaps }) mrapyuyrat is also a gloss—this time a correct one—on paddXovr. ‘ Omitting jer as a gloss. 5 A slightly longer version of viii. 8. 5 Cp, chapters I, 5, and 13. 963° 40 963° on PROBLEMATA when it receives food) comes from the lungs! and gene- rally results from cooling as an effect of chill or pain or medicine entering from above? For the region of the lungs, being naturally hot, when it is cooled does not emit all the breath but forms as it were bubbles. This is why hiccup- ing stops if the breath is held (for the region then becomes warm) ; and the application of vinegar, which is heating, has the same effect. Heat then collecting from the heat of the brain also (for the upper regions are connected by passages with the lungs) and the lungs being warm, the hold- ing of the breath which precedes the sneeze, and the down- ward impetus from above, dissolve the hiccuping. Why is it that those who have crisp hair and whose hair curls are usually rather snub-nosed? Is it because crisp- ness resides in fatness, and fatness is accompanied by hard- ness, and the blood being hard is hot, and heat does not produce excrement, and boniness is formed from excrement, and the cartilage of the nose is bony—therefore a scantiness of this part is a natural result? This theory is supported by the fact that young children are always snub-nosed. ‘ Reading mvevpovos for mvevuaros [so too Bussemaker], cp. 961° 11 6 d€ Avypyos Tov TEpi TvEvpova KatdWvéts ; also the mention of some part of the body is required to which 6 rdros (963” 2) may refer. 963 BOOK XXXIV PROBLEMS CONCERNING THE MOUTH AND THE PARTS THEREIN 1 Why is it that those who have spongy teeth are not long-lived?! Is it because the long-lived have more teeth, for instance males have more than females, men than 20 women, and rams than ewes? Those then who have spongy teeth apparently resemble those who have fewer teeth. 2 Why is it that, though the teeth are stronger than the flesh, yet they are more sensitive to cold? Is it because they are closely connected with the pores, in which the heat, because it is small, is quickly overcome by the cold and causes pain? » or 3. Why are the teeth more sensitive to cold than to heat, while the contrary is true of the flesh? Is it because the flesh partakes of the mean and is of moderate temperature, but the teeth are cold and therefore more sensitive to cold ?? Or is it because the teeth consist of narrow pores in which the heat is scanty, so that they are quickly affected : by the opposite of heat? Now the flesh is warm, so that it is unaffected by the cold, but is quickly sensitive to heat ; for it is a case of ‘ fire added to fire’. w> ° 4 Why is it that the tongue is indicative of many things? For in acute diseases it indicates fever by the presence ® of ' This is the same problem as that of x. 48, differently answered. The solution of the problem presented here is taken direct from /77s¢. Anim. 501” 20 ff. 2 Reading Wuxpod for éevavriov. The reading of the MSS., of d¢ dddures Wuyxpol, Sore rov evaytiov (i.e. Tov Bepuov) padrdov aigO)riKoi, is quite impossible, since (1) the problem is discussing why the teeth are more susceptible to cold, (2) the flesh, being hot, is stated (in ll. 30, 31) to be more susceptible to heat, therefore the teeth, being cold, ought to be more susceptible to co/d. The Latin version, which renders +e frigidam sentire plenius possunt, evidently translates puxpov. 5 Omitting «al before éav. 963° PROBLEMATA blisters upon it; also the tongues of sheep are particoloured 35 if the sheep are so. Is it because the tongue is capable of taking up moisture and is situated near the lungs, which are the seat of fevers? Now all things which are parti- coloured are so because their humours are particoloured, and that part first takes on colour through which the humour first passes ; and this is what happens to the tongue. Now blisters collect on the tongue because it is spongy; for a 4o blister is as it were an eruption which has not been con- cocted within." 9642 Why is it that the tongue becomes bitter and salty and 5 acid, but never sweet? Is it because these qualities are corruptions and so the tongue cannot perceive its own real nature? Why is it that the coloration of the tongue corresponds 6 5 with that of the skin ?? Is it because it is really an external part of the body, though it is enclosed in the mouth, and is it because the skin on it is thin that even a slight variegation of colour makes itself visible? Or is it because it is liquid that causes change of colour, and the tongue is most affected by what is drunk? 10 Why is it that one can emit both hot and cold breath 7 from the mouth? For one can puff out cold breath and breathe out warm breath. That the breath is warm can be demonstrated by placing the hand near the mouth Or is the air which is set in motion warm® in both cases, but does he who puffs out breath not set the air in motion all at once but blow through a partly closed mouth, so that, 15 though he emits but little breath, he sets up motion over a large area of the outer air, in which the warmth from his mouth is not apparent owing to its scantiness? But one who breathes out breath emits it all at once, and therefore itis warm. For it is characteristic of puffing out breath 2 "Cpr 065” 16. * This subject has been already dealt with as part of the problem of chapter 4 above. : Cp. 945 15 and note. * Putting a full stop after yetpa. ° Reading Oepuds (Ruelle) for puxpds. 8 9 Io II BOOK XXXIV. 7 to! pack the air into a particularly small space; whereas breathing out air is emitting it all at once. Why is it that, if one expires violently and with all the breath at once, it is impossible to expire again? So too with violent inspiration, which cannot be repeated again immediately. Is it because expiration is a local dilatation, and inspiration a local contraction, both of which can be carried out within certain limits? Clearly, therefore, the two processes must be carried out one after another, but neither can be performed twice consecutively. Why is it that, though there is one passage through which meat and drink pass and another through which we breathe, if we swallow too large a morsel we choke? In this there is nothing strange; for not only do we choke if something penetrates into this passage, but we choke still more if it be blocked. Now the passages through which we take food and through which we breathe are parallel to one another; when, therefore, too large a morsel is swallowed, the respiration is also blocked, so that there is no way out for the breath. Why is it that men are very long-lived who have a cut right across the hand ??_ Is it because those animals which are badly articulated are short-lived and weak? As an 964 instance of weakness we may take young animals, and of 35 shortness of life the aquatic creatures. Clearly then those who are well articulated must be the opposite,’ namely, those in whom even those parts are best articulated which are by nature badly articulated. Now the inside of the hand is the least well articulated part of the body. Why is it that, in deep breathing, when we draw in the a breath the stomach contracts, but when we expire it fills 964” out? Now the contrary of this might be expected to occur. Is it because in breathing the stomach is com- pressed downwards by the flanks and then appears to expand again, like bellows? 1 Reading 1é for r@, but the corruption is perhaps deeper, though the sense is clear. ; 2 The so-called ‘line of life’. The same problem is treated in a slightly different form in x. 49. 3 j.e. long-lived. 964” PROBLEMATA s Why do we respire? Does the breath dissolve into fire, 12 just as the moisture dissolves into breath? The heat, then, of nature, when the greater part of the breath produces fire, causes pain and pressure upon the ducts; and that is why we emit the fire with the breath.' Now when the breath and fire go forth, the ducts contract and are ro cooled, and pain results; we therefore draw the breath in again. Then when we have opened the breath-ducts* and given them relief, fire is again engendered and we again feel discomfort, and therefore expel it and continue to do so indefinitely ; just as we continually blink as the part 1, round the eye cools and becomes dry. Also we walk without giving attention to the manner of our walking, the intellect by itself* guiding us. In like manner, there- fore, we carry out the process of breathing; for we do so by contriving to draw in air, and then continue to draw it in. ‘ The Teubner text omits a whole line here by haplography and should read 76 mip (pera rod mvevpatos. drav dé e€€AOy TO TvEt pa Kal TO mip), TupmirTdvray KTH. > Reading mvevparos with Y® X9, 3 Reading od for ody with Bussemaker. * Reading atvrijs for airois, unless we suppose a lacuna after rjs Stavolus avrots. 964 BOOK XXXV PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH THE EFFECTS OF TOUCH I~ Why do we shudder more when some one else touches us than when we touch ourselves? Is it because the touch of a part of some one else has more power to produce sensation than that of a part of oneself, since that which is connected by growth with the sense-organ is imperceptible ? Also anything which occurs unawares and suddenly is more frightening, and fright is a process of cooling; and both these qualities are possessed by the touch of another as contrasted with one’s own touch. And, speaking generally, passive sensation is produced either solely by some one else or at any rate in a greater degree! than by oneself; as happens for example in tickling. is} 5 2 Why do we feel tickling in the armpits and on the soles 30 of the feet? Is it owing to the thinness of the skin? And do we feel it most where we are unaccustomed to being touched, as in these parts and the ears? 3 Why is it that every one does not shudder at the same things? Is it because, just as we do not all feel pleasure or pain at the same things, so we do not shudder at the same things? For the same sort of cooling process takes 35 place.’ So some people shudder when a garment is torn, others when a saw is being sharpened or drawn through wood, others when pumice-stone is being cut, others when the millstone is grinding on stone.‘ 4 Why is it that, though the summer is warm and the winter cold, bodies are colder to the touch in summer than 965* 1 Transposing 4) wadXov and f pdvov (Richards), 2.Gpavite 5 3 i, e. when we shudder and when we feel pain. ( 4 j,e. when there is no grist in the mill. dévos is always used of the upper millstone. £45-25 Aa 965° PROBLEMATA in winter? Is it because perspiration and the act of per- spiring cool the body, and this takes place in summer but not in winter? Or is it because cold and heat are 5 driven inwards! inversely to the seasons,” and in the summer the cold takes refuge within and therefore causes perspiration to be given off, whereas in winter the cold keeps the perspiration in and the body vaporizes it, as does the earth ? Why do the hairs bristle upon the skin?’ Is it because 5 they naturally stand erect when the skin is contracted,* 10 and this contraction occurs owing to cold and certain other conditions ? Why is it that no one can tickle himself? Is it because 6 one also feels tickling by another person less if one knows beforehand that it is going to take place, and more if one does not foresee it? A man will therefore feel tickling least when he is causing it and knows that he is doing so. Now laughter is a kind of derangement and deception (and 1 so men laugh when they are struck in the midriff; for it is no ordinary part of the body with which one laughs’®), Now that which comes unawares tends to deceive, and it is this also which causes the laughter, whereas one does not make oneself laugh. Why is it that we feel tickling in particular on the lips? 7 Is it because the part which feels tickling must be situated 20not far from the seat of sensation? Now the lips are essentially in this position, and so of all parts of the head the most sensitive to tickling are the lips, which are fleshy, and therefore very easily set in motion. Why is it that a man bursts out laughing if one scratches g the region of his armpits, though he does not do so when ' For the doctrine of avrurepicracis see note on 8672 32. * i.e. cold drives heat inwards and vice versa; cp. 888? 34 ff., where hot water is said to drive cold inwards. * The same problem occurs in viii. 12. * Reading ovordcwa for oracwoar, cp. 888" 39. ° Laughter being a contraction of the muscles of the midriff or diaphragm, which according to the Greeks enclosed the seat of intelligence. BOOK XXXV. 8 any other part is tickled? And why does a man sneeze if he tickles his nostrils with a feather? Is it because these parts are regions where the small veins are situated, and when these are cooled or undergo the opposite process } they become moist or dissolve? into breath as the result of the moisture? (Similarly, if one compresses the veins in the neck of one who is asleep, an extraordinarily pleasant sensation is caused.*) And when the breath is engendered in greater abundance, we emit it ina single mass.* Simi- larly also in sneezing, when we warm the moisture in the nostrils and scratch them with a feather, we dissolve it into breath ; and when the breath becomes superabundant we expel it. Q9 Why is it that we often shudder after taking solid food? Is it because when food which is cold enters the body it prevails at first over the natural heat rather than vice versa ? Io) 6©Why is it that an object which is held between two crossed fingers® appears to be two? Is it because we touch it at two sentient points? For when we hold the hand in its natural position we cannot touch® an object with the outer’ sides of the two fingers. 1 i.e. become hot. 2 Reading tbypaivorvra .. . dtadvovrat. f 3 Reading domep cay... Pr(eBas kaBevdovow Hyiv, ndovy Oavpacia tis eorw (W. D.R.). 4 And this causes an explosion of laughter. 5 Reading rois évadda€é daxridos (T. G. renders digitis vice mutata ztmplicatis), cp. 958» 14, 15 and note. ® Reading @:yetv (W. D.R.) for eireiv. T Reading exros, from T. G., for évrds. IN, B92 ew Or BOOK XXXVI PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH THE FACE 965” Why is the face chosen for representation in portraits? I Is it because the face shows best what the character of a person is? Or is it because it is most easily recognized ? Why is it that one perspires most freely on the face, 2 though it is far from being fleshy ?! Is it because parts 5 which are rather moist and rare perspire freely, and the head has these characteristics? For it contains an abun- dance of natural moisture; this is shown by the veins which extend from it and the discharges which it produces, and the fluidity of the brain and the numerous pores. That there are numerous pores extending outwards is 1o Shown by the presence of the hair. The perspiration then comes not from the lower parts of the body but from the head; and so one perspires most readily and freely? on the forehead, for it is highcst in position and moisture flows down and not up. Why do eruptions occur more frequently on the face 3 than elsewhere? Is it because this part contains rarities 13 and moisture? That this is so is shown by the growth of hair on it and by its power of sensation; and an eruption is as it were an efflorescence of unconcocted moisture. 1 This problem occurs also in Bk. ii. 17. > Reading mp@rov (kal) padiora, cp. 868? 2. 965° BOOK XXXVII PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH THE WHOLE BODY 1 Why is it that, though the body is in a state of continual 20 flux, and effluvia are given off from the excrements, the body is only lightened if it perspires?! Is it because the excretion in the form of effluvia is too little (for when liquid is transformed into air, much air is formed out of little liquid)? For what is excreted? is more, which 25 accounts for the excretion taking longer to begin. 2 And what is the reason of this? Is it because its exit takes place through smaller pores? For the viscous and the adhesive matter is expelled with the moisture because it mingles with it, but it cannot be expelled with the breath ; and it is this thick matter in particular which causes pain. Therefore also vomiting lightens the body more than sweating, because that which is vomited, being thicker and 30 more substantial, carries away this viscous matter with it. Or is there a further reason, namely, that the region in which the viscous and the adhesive matter is, is situated at a distance in relation to the flesh (and so it is difficult to make it change its position), but near to the stomach? For it is engendered either in or close to it; and therefore 35 it is difficult to get rid of * it in any other way. 3 Why is it that friction produces flesh? Is it because heat has great power to increase what is in the body? For the bulk of what already exists in it becomes greater if the 1 This and the following chapter are almost verbally identical with ii. 22, but the problem is here divided into two. ? i.e. in sweat. 3 Reading dvoeEdywyor from 868? 11. 965° PROBLEMATA body is in continual motion and if our internal humours are carried upwards and vaporized, and this occurs as 966% a result of friction; whereas in the absence of this, the body wastes away and decreases. Or is it because the flesh increases in bulk by nutriment! as the result of heat (for anything which is hot has the power to attract moisture, 5and the nutriment distributed in the flesh is moist and the flesh takes up moisture better by being rare, for the rarer a thing is the more it can absorb, like a sponge), whereas friction makes the flesh well ventilated and rare and pre- vents congestion in the body? Now if there is no conges- tion, there can be no wasting either; for atrophy and 1o Wasting are the result of conglomeration. But the better ventilated and the rarer and the more homogeneous the parts of the body are the more likely they are to acquire bulk, for they are better able to take up nutriment and to get rid of excrements, since the flesh must be rarefied and not densified in order to promote health.? For just as a city or 15 locality is healthy which is open to the breezes (and that is why the sea too is healthy), so the body is healthier if the air can circulate in it than when it is in the contrary condi- tion. For either there ought to be no excrement ® in the body, or else the body ought to be able to get rid of it as soon as possible and be in such a condition that it can reject the excrement as soon as it receives it and be always 20 in a state of motion and never at rest. For that which remains stationary putrefies (standing water, for example), and that which putrefies creates disease; but that which is rejected passes away before it becomes corrupt. This then does not occur if the flesh is dense (the ducts being as it were 25 blocked up), but it does happen if the flesh is rare. One ought not therefore to walk naked in the sun; for the flesh thereby solidifies and acquires an absolutely fleshy consis- tency; for the internal moisture remains, but the surface moisture is expelled in the form of-vapour, just as in roast meat the inner portions are moister than in boiled meat. ? Reading 17) rpopn (W. D.R.). * 966" 13-34 is almost verbally identical with 865% 18-37 and 8842 24-7. * Reading pndev (repitrapa, i) tovrov, cp. 865" 21, 884% 29. BOOK XXXVII. 3 966" Nor ought one to walk in the sun with the chest bare, for then the sun draws out the moisture from the best 30 constructed parts of the body, which! least require to be deprived of it; but it is rather the inner parts which need to be dried,? for, because they are remote, it is impossible to produce perspiration except by a violent effort ; but it is easy to exhaust the moisture in the chest, because it is near the surface. 4 Why is it that, when we are chilled, the same heat causes 35 more burning and pain?* Is it because owing to its density the flesh holds the heat which comes into contact with it? This is the reason why lead becomes hotter than wool. Or is the passage of the heat violent because the body is congealed by cold ? 5 Why does dry friction render the flesh solid? Is it 966° because heat is engendered by the friction and the moisture is used up? Furthermore, the flesh when rubbed becomes dense,* and everything becomes denser and solider the 5 more it is rubbed. This can be seen in many examples; dough, for instance, and clay and similar substances, if you pour water into them and spread them out, remain moist and fluid, but, if you apply more friction, they quickly densify and solidify and become viscous. 6 Why does friction produce more flesh than running? Is to it because running cools the flesh and makes it less ab- sorbent of nutriment, but part of the nutriment is shaken downwards, while the part on the surface,’ owing to the 1 Reading 4, as in the parallel passage 865” 34. ® Punctuating (as in the parallel passage 865> 32-5) ovde ra o76y yupya éxovta BadiCew ev HAto* dnd yap... apaipecews, GAAG paddAov Ta evros Enpavreoy. } 3 j,e. than it would if we were not chilled. This chapter is almost verbally identical with vill. 19. 4 This is a direct contradiction of the doctrine of chapters 3 and 6 (*7, 15), where it is stated that friction rarefies the flesh. _ 5 Reading éemurodjs [so too Bussemaker] for the meaningless ¢mi mo\\od, which probably arose from the dittography of the A and the subsequent assimilation of the gender to that of @eppou ; cp. * 27 rd de ememoAns dwadharrerat e€arptCouevov. 966” PROBLEMATA exhaustion of the natural heat, becomes quite thin and is expelled in the form of breath? But the hand by friction 15 makes the flesh rare and able to take up nutriment. More- over, the external contact, opposing by its pressure the natural impetus of the flesh, makes it compact and drives it back upon itself. 966” BOOK XXXVIII PROBLEMS CONCERNING THE COLORATION | 20 OF THE FLESH I Why is it that the sun bleaches wax and olive oil, but darkens the flesh?! Is it because it bleaches the former by extracting the water from them (for that which is moist is naturally black owing to the admixture of the earthy element), whereas it scorches the flesh ? 2 Why have fishermen reddish hair, and purple-fishers and 25 in short all who work on the sea? Is it because the sea is hot and full of dryness because it is salty? Now that which is of this nature, like lye and orpiment, makes the hair reddish. Or is it because they are warmer in their outer parts, but their inner parts are chilled, because, owing 30 to their getting wet, the surrounding parts are always being dried by the sun? And as they undergo this process, the hair being dried becomes fine and reddish. Furthermore all those who live towards the north have fine, reddish hair. 3 Why is it that running in clothing and anointing the body under the clothing with oil makes men pale skinned,’ whereas running naked makes them ruddy? Is it because ventilation produces a ruddy colour, while suffocation has the opposite effect and causes“ pallor, because the moisture on the surface is heated up and does not cool? Now per- spiring in clothes and anointing the body under the cloth- ing both have the same effect, namely, that the heat is enclosed. But running naked makes the flesh ruddy for 967* the opposite reason, because the air cools the excrements =) 1 Cp. below, chapter 11. * The same subject is dealt with in Hippocr. de Déaet. ii. 63 and Theophrastus de Szdéore, § 39. * Reading rotvartioy, dua de. 967° PROBLEMATA which form! and ventilates the body. Further, the oil, which is moist and thin, being smeared over the body under the clothing and blocking up the pores, does not allow either the moisture and breath from the body to escape or the external air to penetrate inwards. Therefore the moist excrements being choked in the body decay and produce pallor. ES 4] Why is\it that the ventilation of the flesh makes it 4 ruddy? Is it because pallor is as it were a corruption of the flesh? When, therefore, the surface is moist and hot, 10 it becomes yellow unless it is cooled and gives off the heat in the form of breath. Why is it that those who perspire are ruddyas a result 5 of their exercises, whereas athletes are pale? Is it because as the result of moderate exertion the heat is burnt up and comes to the surface, whereas by constant exertion it is 15 drained off with the perspiration and breath, the body being rarefied by exertion? When, therefore, the heat comes to the surface,a man becomes ruddy, just as he does when he is hot or ashamed; but when the heat fails, he is pallid. Now ordinary persons indulge in moderate exercise, -whereas athletes are constantly training. 20 Why are men more sunburnt who sit still in the sun than 6 those who take exercise?? Is it because those who are in motion are as it were fanned by the breath owing to the movement of the air which they set up, whereas those who are sitting still do not undergo this process? Why does the sun scorch, while fire does not? Is it7 25 because the heat of the sun is finer and can penetrate farther into the flesh?* Fire, on the other hand, if it does scorch, only raises the surface of the flesh by creating what we call blisters, and does not penetrate within. 967° Why is it that fire does not make men black, whereas 8 the sun does so, and why does fire blacken earthenware, * And so causes them to evaporate. * Cp. Theophrastus, de /ene, § 36. * Cp. Theophrastus, of. czt., § 38. BOOK XXXVIII. 8 967° while the sun does not? Or do they produce their effects by dissimilar means, the sun blackening the flesh by scorching it and the fire permeating the earthenware with the soot which it sends up? (Now soot consists of fine ember-dust, 5 formed by the simultaneous breaking-up and burning of the charcoal.) The sun, then, makes men black, while the fire does not do so, because the heat of the sun is gentle and owing to the smallness of its parts it can scorch the flesh itself; and so, because it does not set the flesh on fire, it does not cause pain, but it blackens it because it scorches it. 10 Fire, on the other hand, either does not kindle at all or else penetrates within; for what is burnt by fire also becomes black, but it does not burn merely that part of the body in which the colour is situated. Q9 Why do men become darker complexioned as they become older?! Is it because anything which decays becomes blacker, except mildew? And old age and decay are the same thing.? Further, since the blood when it '5 dries up becomes blacker, it is only likely that the older men are the darker they are; for it is the blood which naturally gives colour to our bodies. 10 Why is it that, of persons engaged in the preparation of cereals, those who handle barley become pale and are 20 subject to catarrh, while those who handle wheat are healthy ?* Is it because wheat is more easily concocted than barley, and therefore its emanations are also more easily concocted ? 11 Why is it that the sun bleaches olive oil but darkens the flesh?+ Is it because it extracts the earthy element from the olive oil, and this, like the earthy element in wine, is 25 the black part of it? Now it darkens the flesh because it burns it; for that which is earthy always becomes black when burnt. 1 Cp. 890 16 ff. ® Reading ravro for rovro. 8 This problem is identical with xxi. 24, where see note on 929? 28 ; cp. also 863) 1 ff. * The problem here dealt with is the same as that of chapter 1 above, but somewhat differently answered. INDEX Abortion, occurs most frequently in spring, 860° 18 ff. Abscesses, 88531; diagnosis of, 863 8. Accompaniment, musical, adds to the pleasure of a solo, 918422; ‘antiphonal’ a. more pleasing than ‘symphonic’, 918” 30; see also Flute, Lyre. Acorn, 92532, 37, 930” 16, 17 Acquittal of a wrongdoer less serious than condemnation of the innocent, 9514 39. Actors, go1>2, 9go4>4, 91635; their aim is to give pleasure, b 37; are imitators, 918» 28. Aegean Sea, 932721, 25. Agathyrsi, 92071. Age, see O/d age. Ague, 947° 21. Atr, Problems connected with the, 937” 30-940" I5. Air, not moistened by contact with water, O30%17i, 9307171; cannot penetrate through solids, 410; cannot saturate anything, 429; does not rise, #39; warmer in small quantities, 23; does not become corrupt, »27; move- ment of, in large rooms, 940% 3. Ajax, afflicted by melancholy, 953? ae Alcmaeon, 916? 34. Aleian Plain, the, 953724. Alum, 937? 23. Anaxagoras, 903% 8, 914? Io. Anger, physical effect of, 869 5, 947» 23; prevents chill, 889715 ; makes the eyes red, 957"9, 961* 9. Angles, right, 913% 10, 28, 33, 36; notes compared to, 918*20; ob- jects thrown rebound at similar a.S, 913° 6 ff., 915>18 ff. Animals, growth in, 916712; origin of, 8922 26. Animate Things, Problems con- nected with, 915° 36-916* 39. Aphrodite, Anise, 9497 2. Anointing, a cure for fatigue, 863> 19, 884” 37 ; of the eyes by child- less women, 87612; its effect upon odour, 908» 24, 34; under the clothing produces pallor, 966? 35. ‘ Antiphonal’, accompaniment, 918> 30; notes, > 39, g19%2, 8, Io. ‘ Antiphony’, 918> 34 ; more pleas- ing than ‘homophony’, 92177; how produced, #9. Antistrophe, 918 13, 19. 95331; see also Cypris. Apoplexy, 860% 33, 874” 29, 8757, 37, 887424, 903° 9, 905717, » 35, 954? 24. Apples, 923 5. Aquatic animals, short-lived, 896° 1. Arabia, 906548, 9084 14. Arcadia, winds in, 947215; no out- lets to the sea in, #19. Archelaus, King of Macedonia, 954? 32. Archytas, 915 29. Arcturus, 859% 23. Artemis, 894> 34. Articulation, vocal, effect of drun- kenness on, 875) 27 ff.; of the body, 896" 1 ff., 964? 34 ff. Arts, analogy of the, 895” 32. Ashes, take up no space in water, 938° 26 ff.; attract water, 939° I. Asses, 89327, 89412, &97"35, 8987 11. Astronomer, 917° 8. Atarneus, hot waters at, 937” 7. Athletes, 86222; unable to bear cold, 888%23; paleness of, 967° 1 Athletic contests, prizes for, 956° 16. Athos, Mt., no wind on, 944” 13. Atlantic, 946 29. Atrabilious, see Melancholic. Attica, 942%19, 94633, 947%2; effect of soil in A. upon plants, 925° 8 ff. INDEX Bakers, 8631, 929” 26, 967” 19. Baldness, 878" 23, 893° 38, 897” 23, 29; not found in those blind from birth, 957° 23 ff. Barley, 863% 34 ff., 929°27; less nourishing than wheat, 927° 17; ‘gluing b, with water’, 929° 17. Barley-cake, 92721, 32, 92871, 929° 7, » 19. Barley-gruel, 927% 11. Barley-meal, Barley-cake, and the like, Problems connected with, 927% 10-9 30% 3. : Barley-meal, 92723, 16, 33, 925" 35, 929% 8, 11, 25, 31, 36, 9, 36, 39. Baths, a cure for fatigue, 863° 19, 884 36; theft from the, 952 17 ff.; see also Vapour baths. Beans, 8907 25. Beautiful, the, as an object of desire, 896° Io. Beauty, not communicable to others, 951° 5. Bellerophon, a victim of melancholy, 953° 21. ‘Bellowings’, subterranean, 937° 39 ff. Bile, 860%22, 94810; black b. (melancholy), 86024; its com- position and effects, 954° 14 ff.; see also AZelancholic. Biliousness, causes the feet to swell, 859>2; more serious in winter than summer, ° 5. Birds, 895° 3, 12, 896° 32, 897” Io, 8984, 17, 27; are lustful, 880% 35, 89310; have no bladder, 891 18 ; legs of 895% 22. Birth, claims of, preferred to pro- visions of wills, 950? 5 ff. Black Sea, 932% 21. Bladder, 924° 14, 936° 31, 949° 1; human, 8955 ; of cloven-hoofed animals, 895 39; none in birds, 89118; none in some fishes, 895>1 ; effect of garlic on, 908*7. Blight, 862° 25. Blind, those b. from birth do not become bald, 957° 23 ff. Blood, staunching of, 862%13; becomes darker in the old, 967 15 ff. Blows, effect of, 889% 27, 32, 890% S75 COMO: Blushing, 8897 20, 903° 3, 905° 7, 957” 10, 960% 36 ff., 9612 8, > 31. Boar, wild, 896? 23. Body, Problems connected with the whole, 965” 20-966” 19. Body, cooler to the summer, 964? 39 ff. Boreas, see orth wind. Bowels, effect of fear on the, 869? 3, 947” 14, 19, 29, 948°35, 9499 I. Brain, the, 801% 11, 17, 896233; 9637; the source of semen, 897° 23. Brambles, 906” 11. Brave, the, fond of wine, 948? 13; see also Courage. Bread, lighter if mixed with salt, 927% 35; effect of kneading upon, 929717; effect of toasting upon, b 30; see also Loaves. Breath, can be emitted both hot and cold, 964? Io ff. Breathing, nature of, 9645; effect of deep, 964® 39 ff. Briers, 906° 11. Bronze, 8go 9; b. vessels resonant, 899° 33. Bruises, Scars,and Weals, Problems connected with, 889° 10-891? 5. Bruises, cures for, 890225, 7, 20. Bubbles, bases of, are white and throw no shadows, 913*109ff.; why hemispherical, ®29ff.; in boiling water, 936>2; in soup, > 36; air in b.s not wet, 939? 25. Bulls, effect of castration upon, 89423, 89726; sacred b.s, 938° I. touch in Cabbage, prevents the ill effects of drinking, 873° 37 ff.; useful as a purge, >2. Caecias, see North-East wind. Calm, usually occurs at midday or midnight, 938823; on high mountains, 944° 12 ff. Caper-plant, does not grow on tilled ground, 924° 1. Castration, effects of, 894° 109 ff.; 897° 26 ff. Catarrh, 929» 27. Cauterization, X surgery, 863210; \ drugs, 863219; as a cure for running at the eyes, 95725. Celery, benefited by salt water, 923°6; method of cultivation, bTo. Chaeremon, tragic poet, quoted, 873725. INDEX Chaff, used for preserving fruit, Cee are Chilblains,care of, 65> 38 ff. 86685 ff. Children, dislike wine, 87222; have hot and moist temperi iments, OTs methods of communication, 8952 13; phenomenon of speech in, 902° 5 ff.; have shrill voices, 232; hesitate in speech, » 16. Chill and Shivering, Problems connected with, 887" 10-889» 7. Chill, makes the flesh livid, 887» 10; prevents sleep, > 15, $894; affects stout persons most, 887° 32 ; effect on the tongue, 8887; effect on the.hair, 88S 39, » 16 ff.; prevented by anger, 889715; caused by fear, #24, 94813; see also Cold. Choking, cause of, 964° 25 ff. Chorus, c.-singers practise before taking food, gor» 2, 904° 3 ; con- sisting of free citizens, 91320; songs of, antistrophic, 91827; less imitative than actors, 918° 29; large c. keeps better time, OFO*36 ff; 922% 30ff.; modes suitable and unsuitable for tragic c., 920 § ff., 922P ro ff. ; function of, © 26. Circle, ‘human life is a c.’, 916% 28. Cistern, 899) 27. Clay, a cure for bruises, 890% 26. Clazomenae, 875% 35. Clock, water-c., deeb 12, 86823; phenomena connected’ with the, 914° off. Cloud-winds, 940” 30, 941° 37. Ciay weather hotter than clear, 937” 33- Coat, aes of, by animals, 893 4 ff., 898° Cold, effect ap on those who are ill, or in pain, or angry, 887” 19 ff.; affects the extremities most, » 26; effect on the feet, >29; athletes unable to bear c., 888% 23 ; reason of c. at dawn, » 27, 938 32, 939? 5; excessive cold causes brutish- ness, 909713; c. climate makes men courageous, ? 9, 910 39; see also Chz//. Coloration of the Flesh, Problems connected with the, 966” 20-967» 27. Coloration ofthe eyes, 89271, 9107 13. Cone, the vision has the form of a c., 872 37, 9115, 16, 20; formed by the light of the sun through a rectangular hole, g12? 15 ff.; movement of a c., 913” 39 ff. Conjurer, 91738. Consonants, 895° 9. Contagiousness of diseases, of, S86? 4 ff., 887% 22 ff. GE ontinence and Incontinence, Prob- lems connected with, 949% 21- 950" 19 Continence, most praised in the young and wealthy, 949” 20. Contraries, sometimes produce the same result, 874>36, 888 32; destroy one another, 889%6; mingling of, in music, 92122; change into one another, 9416. Cooking, effect of, on vegetables, O2e 47 .ote Copper, 864% 34; surgical instru- ments made of, 863? 25 ff. ; burns inflicted by, #31; curative effects of, 8907 27, © 20, 37. Corn, cut off by frost, 935218; see also Wheat, Barley. Coughing, 891%8, 962222; caused by scraping the ears, 960» 35. Counting, by tens, 91023 ff.; on the fingers, » 39; by fours, 911% 2. Courage, Problems connected with Fear and, 947” 10-949% 20. Courage, why so highly honoured, 9488 31 ff. Courageousness of those who live in cold regions, 909? 9. Cowardice of those who live in hot regions, 90g? 9, 9107 38. Crocodiles’ eggs, 9267 9. Crow, does not change its colour, 891" 16. Cucumber, 923% 13, 925° 31. Cultivated ¥ wild plants, 8966, 924* 18, 927° 4. Cylinder, path described by, in motion, 913) 37. Cypris, 8968 24. Cyrene, 946» 33. cause Dawn, reason of coldness at, 888> 27, 938" 32, 939” 5. ; Deaf, the, speak through their nostrils, 899" 4, 15, 962” 35 ff. Deafness, 89828, 960° 37; often found with dumbness, 961° 14. Death, a process of cooling, 874>1; as a penalty for theft, 953% 3. INDEX Defect, a cause of disease, 859% 3. Defendant, position of, on the tight hand in court, at 15 ff.; wins if the votes are ee 951% 20 ff., 952” 36. Deposit, robbery of a, more serious than of a loan, 950% 28 ff., » 28 ff. Dew, 938% 34, 939 36. Diameter, gio” 11 ff., 19 ff. Dice, loaded, 913% 35, 915° 8. Diet, in disease, 863° 34 ff., 865% 35 ff, 866* 8 ff.; in summer, 863> 24, 88522; reduction of, healthy, 864> 36, 88.43 22; human d. moist rather than dry, 897219, 36; effect of monotonous d., 928 33, b23. Dionysius, the tyrant, 949% 25. Dionysus, 953° 31. Disease, due to excess or defect, 350% 2-pcured) by sexcess,a05.500 by starvation, “7; effect of the seasons on, 8599 ff., 861° 1 ff., 21 ff. ; effect of the weather on, 859” 21 ff.; contagiousness of, 886? 4 ff., 887 22 ff. Disputations, as a mental exercise, 916? 18 ff. Dithyrambs, 918? 19. Divers, their ear-drums burst in the sea, 960? 8 ff.; protect their ears with sponges, )15 ff.; slit their ears and nostrils, P2off.; use cauldrons as diving-bells, » 32. Dizziness, occurs in those standing rather than in those sitting, 885 35- Doctors, aim of treatment by, 956 28 ff. Dogs, prolific, 8921, 898%13; change their coats, 8939 4; bad- tempered after bearing young, 894> 12; produce monstrosities, 898? 12 3 Melitaean d.s, 8y28 21: wild in India, 895» 25. Dog-star, 859723, 941° 37, >3, 8, a 94 Dough, 927» 33, 38, 9284 27, 929° 6, 18. pee 956 39; cause of, 95797, 23. Dropsy, So 24; drunkards liable to, 871>2 Drugs, effect of, 863 4off., 864 3 ff, 23 ff, 865°3 ff; \ surgery and cauterization, 863 19 ff. Drunkards, Drunken, the, cannot endure cold, 87121 ff., °33 ff.; the slightly d. more troublesome than the very d., 87177 ff., 875% 29 ff. ; infertile, 8712 23 ; why the d. tremble, *27 ff., 874° 22 ff. ; often dropsical or rheumatic, 871525; more sensitive to salty and bad water, 87279 ff. 873” 37 ff.; incapable of sexual inter- course, 872>15 ff, 875>39ff.; easily moved to tears, 874° 8 ff. ; those who like sweet wine do not become d., 875>1 ff.; fond of the sun, °5ff., 34ff.; voices of, broken, 9041; deep voice of, gos” 25. Drunkenness, Problems connected with the drinking of wine and, 8712 1-876 28. Drunkenness, 87171, 876228; effect on the vision, 872° 18 ff, be ft, 87405 fay "Odi: imore seriously affects those who take physical exercise, 873713; ill effects prevented by taking cabbage, * 37ff.; effect on the speech, 875» 19 ff. ; oil beneficial against, $768 26. Dumb, the, speak through their nostrils, &992 6, 17. Dumbness, 895216, 898 32; often found with deafness, 961” 14. Dwarfs, 892° 6. Dysentery, 860% 32, 861» 4. Ear-drums, inflated by yawning, g60* 38; of divers, burst in the sea, 8 ff. ; protected by sponges, b is ifn oil poured into, 9614 24. Lars 'voblems conte cled with the, 960» 36-961» 6. Ears, turn red from shame, 957° 10, 9608 36 ff, 96128, 31; slitting of, by divers, 960? 21 ff. ; scrap- ing the e.s causes coughing, » 355 holes close up more quickly in left. e€,. 24oft,; se tmalezacand ‘female’ e.s, 9618 2; buzzing in, ®16; oil placed in e.s, to drive out water, 318 ff.; closely con- nected with the lungs, °13 ff.; see also Hearing. East wind (Apeliotes), 940 32, 943° 33; begins in early morn- ing, 944220; origin of its name, 944° 24; (Hellespontias), 946° 33) 947% 2. INDEX Echo, 899224, 30, 901% 17, 904 38, ®28; higher than original sound, 915° 35. Eclipse of the sun, 912 11, 942% 22. Edible plants, 923° 25 ff. Eggs, as a cure for weals, 889 11 ; raw, will not spin round, 885° 37; double-yolked, 898? 17 ; of croco- diles, 926 9. Egypt, cultivation of melons in, 926 5; S. wind does not blow in the maritime regions of, 945° 21 ff. Egyptians, bandy-legged, 9094 27. Elaterium, 864? 5. Elements, when pure show no variation, 960% 31. Elysian Plains, 943» 22. Emetics, 859% 25. Empedocles, on the pigmentation of the eye, 910% 15; quoted, 929° 16; on petrifaction, 9372 15; afflicted by melancholy, 953% 27. Enslavement, accusation of, 951 2. Enthymemes, 916? 26, 29. Epilepsy, 896° 6, 953% 16, 954° 30; occurs only in man, 960? 18. ‘Epitrite’, 920 36. Equinox, 942 25, 30, 36, 943° 2. Ethiopians, have white teeth, but dark nails, 89812; bandy- legged, 909 27. Eunuchs, 8798; vision of, 876> 25; swollen legs of, » 31; physical peculiarities of, 894> 19, 36, 895 35; donot suffer from varicocele, 894° 39; have sore legs, 895% 31; do not become bald, 897» 23; have shrill voices, goo'15, 903 27, 906% 3. Euripides, quoted (lost play), 895 14, (Cresphontes) 957” 11. Eurus, see South-East wind, Evil eye, 926? 20 ff. ‘Examples’, 916” 25. Excess, a cause of disease, 85972, 862° Io. Exercise, physical, effect on health, 8651; increase of, healthy, 884 22; distends the body, 885” 23; the voice shrill after violent e., goi* 30; detrimental to the vision, 958» 28. Eyebrows, grow thicker with ad- vancing years, 878° 28. Eyelashes, falling off of, 878” 22. Eyes, Problems connected with the, 957* 36-960 33. 645-25 Eyes, the, position of during sexual Intercourse, at death, and in sleep, 876 31 ff. ; effect of sexual intercourse upon, #36 ff., 880% 8ff.; anointed by childless women, 876” 12; watering of e.s of riders on horseback, 882° 3, 884> 22; scars on e.s are white, 889» 21; coloration of, 892°1 ff.; human, why near together, 892? 4 ff.; effect of climate on colour of, 910° 13 ff.; effect of various plants upon, 925% 27 ff.; two es better than one, 9575; become red from anger, 95729, 96179; do not feel cold, 959° 15; sneez- ing stopped by rubbing, 957% 38, 961514, 962225 ff.; the two es connected at their source, 957” 19, 40; sometimes benefited by ophthalmia, 858% 4; sight of two e.s equally acute, 95920; various movements of, 957” 35 ff.; causes of distortion of, 9582 6 ff., 960% 9, 13; effects of distortton of, 958> 12; thee. is a fire, 959" 18, 9608 33; left e. more easily closed than right, 959°31; see also Vision. face, Problems connected with the, 965” 1-17. Face, the, perspires most freely, 867° 23 ff., > 34 ff., 965” 4 ff.; why chosen for representation in por- traits, »2f.; eruptions on, 14. Fasting, makes sexual intercourse easier, 877" 4 ff.; odour resulting from, 908? 11. Fat, consumed by exertion, 880» 34, 37; not natural, 882%22; dis- tribution of, on the body, 891% 19. Fatigue, Problems connected with, 880° 15-885» 11. Fatigue, cures for, 863” 19 ff., 881% 4, 12; more f. caused to the arm from casting if the handis empty, ® 39 ff.; more f. caused by lying on a flat than on a concave sur- face, » 28 ff.; caused by short walks, » 37 ff., 884" 8 ff.; persons of equable temperament liable to f., but easily throw it off, 883> 11 ff.; felt less by the legs than by the thighs, » 14 ff.; cured by baths in summer, by anointing in winter, 884) 36 ff. Bb INDEX Fatness, a condition of health, 888° O. oe and Courage, Problems con- nected with, 947” 10-949? 20. Fear, causes chill, 889* 24, 903” 12, 94813; a process of cooling, 89826; causes trembling, 947” 12, 948935, %6; effect on the bowels, 869? 3, 948? 14, 19, 29, 35 ff.; effect on the heart, 947” 29; causes thirst, 20, 948° 1, 7, > 13 ff.; makes men silent, » 20 ff.; causes urine to pass, 36 ff. Feet, the, swelling of, from bilious- ness and starvation, 859" 2 ff. ; of the nervous, perspire, 868° 34, 869» 4 ff. ; bareness of, prejudicial to sexual intercourse, 877° 5 ff. ; effect of cold upon, 88729; reason for an even number in animals, $93» 20 ff., 894° 17 ff. Females, smaller than males, 891» 21; shorter-lived, 896% 35 ; f. in- fants more likely to be born in damp districts, 909° 32 ; naturally inferior to males, 951212; have fewer teeth, 96320; ‘male’ and Cfeai GO 2. Fennel-stalks, 9057, 19, 92325 ; effect of blows from, 889 27, 32, 890° 37. Fever, 859» 6, 7, 10, 23, 861" 33 ff., 8628 18 ff., 25, 32, 873 17, 874” 18, 875° 13, 8879 24, 948 25; treatment of, 866 8 ff. ; caused by dry S. winds, 94624; the tongue as an indication of, 963” 34; burn- ing f.s more common in cold weather, 862 32 ff.; quartan f., 861" 5, 866? 31. Fifth (musical), 920715; how obtained in wind instruments, 9197 ff.; singing in f.s, 918> 34 ff.; double f. not concordant, 920724, 9211; ratio of, 920* 32, g21” 3. Fig-tree, grafting on, 924” 36 ff. Figs, 930” 20, 32 ff., 39 ff. Fire, a greater f. overpowers a less, 860 18, 861932, 8745, 87622, 880% 21, 930? 30, 931° 19, 9374 26, 961” 31, 962228; stimulates the passing of urine, 886% 36; does not become corrupt, 939” 27; the eye consists of f., 95918, 960% 33. Fishermen, have red hair, 966 25. Fishes, sexual intercourse of, 878 some f. have no bladder, 895) 1. Flesh, Problems concerning the coloration of the, 966” 20-967" 27. Flesh, the, should be rare rather than dense, 865” 1off., 884° 26 ff., 966? 13 ff.; effect of friction on, $829 13, 965>36{f, 9661 ff, 1off.; nature of human f., 893° 29 ff.; more sensitive to heat than to cold, 963526; effect of running on, 966? Io ff.; darkened by the sun, 521 ff, 967°23 ta: cause of pallor in, 966° 34 ff., 967% 9, 13; cause of ruddiness in, 966» 36 ff., 96728 ff., 12 ff.; be- comes blacker in old age, 967” 13 ff. Flood, the, 910% 35. Flour, wheaten, 927223, 15, 35, 928 6, 16, 35, 929° 8, 35, 930° 3; whitened by oil, 927° 11 ff. Flowers, odour of, 906? 31, » 23, 35, go7* 20, 29, » 1, 908 37, gog? 3, 9507 16. Flute, 9co* 31, 918% 23, 31, 919° 4; used both by those who grieve and those who rejoice, 917° 19; a more pleasant accompaniment to song than the lyre, 92271; covers up the mistakes of the singer, #15. TFomentations, 8662 25. Food, not taken immediately after exercise, 883° 33; effect of sweet f., 9307 14, 24; see also Dies. Forerunners, the (winds), 93911, 941" 7, 946% 16. Fourth (musical), 920715; how obtained in wind instruments, gig? 11 ff.; double f. not con- cordant, 920% 24, 921» 1; ratio of, Q20* 35. Friction, effect on the flesh, 8822 13, 965> 30 ff., o66>1ff., >1oOff. ; more difficult to apply to the left than the right leg, 8842 16. Frogs, 862" 11. Fruit, Problems connected with, 930" 5-931" 32. Fruit, as an article of diet, 93027; methods of preserving, 1, 931 23; dried, 930? 12 ; how to enjoy, b20. Furniture, spontaneous noise made by, 902 36 ff. INDEX Gall-stones, man alone suffers from, 895° 37 ff. Garlic, 865222, 903%29, 907°7, go84 28, > 4, 925> 10, 926° 3, 11, 16, 26, 949° 6. Geometrical truths, contemplation of, gives no pleasure, 956" 15 ff. Geryone (play by Nicomachus), 922? 13. Gestation, period of, 891» 11, 25, 89614, 898% 10; varies in man, 895° 24. Glass, 905”7, 18, 939% 14. Gnomon, 912” 40, "7. Goats, milk of, 89144; change of colour in, 89113; prolific, 898* 12: Gourds, grow well if buried, 923° 16ff.; keep fresh in wells, 924? 36 ff.; methods of producing early, 924? 10 ff. Grafting, 924» 36 ff. Grapes, go09*21; dried sweeter than fresh, 92515; stones of, b24. Grass, 923731. Green objects, beneficial to the sight, 959? 24 ff. Growth, in different dimensions, O16? 12 ff. Gruel, 9291; see also Lavley- gruel. Gums, inflammation of the, 863” "1, 887" 1. Hail, 9407 13. Hair, growth of, at puberty, 876° 33 ff.; men with thick h. are lustful, 880% 34 ff., 893° 10 ff. ; cause of bristling of, 86> 24, 888% 39, >16ff., &89% 26 ff., 9652 8 ff.; does not grow on human scars, 690” 38, 893» 28, 894° 13 ff.; turns grey through leprosy, 891 1, 8946; grows harder if plucked out, 893718; soft in northern, hard in southern people, *31; softer when long, #36; grows on scars upon animals, »27, S9a* 12ff.; distribution of, in man and animals, 89629 ff., 895 20 ff.; turns white in man only, 2 31 ff; curliness of, 909% 30, 963” 11 ff.; reddish, of those who work on the sea, 96625 ff., of those who live in the north, » 33. Halo, solar, 912° 34. Hare, prolific, 892” 1. Head, the, sores on, 861733, 909% 35; effect of running on, 8817; movement of, by animals, 892» 19; some animals live after their h.s have been cut off, 89821; the most divine part of man, 962 23, 35: Health, a state of rest, 8866; fat- ness a condition of h., 888% 30; not communicable to others, 951 4 ff. Hearing, often defective from birth, 898 28; has the same source as the voice, 29; better in those who hold their breath, 903» 34, 904° 11}; prevented by yawning, go2’ go ff., 904716 ff.; see also Ears. Heart, the, not controlled by the mind, 882235; effect of fear upon, 947° 29. Heat, lack of, causes old age, 875% 13; feeds on moisture, 214; the cause of motion in animals, 425; excessive h. causes brutishness, 909 13. Heavenly bodies, nine in number, glo? 35 ; appear always to retain the same shapes, 911% 5 ff. Hellebore, 864% 4. Hellespont, 946” 34, 38. Hellespontias (East Wind), 946” 33) 947% 2. Hemlock, effects of, 874» 2. Heracles, affected by melancholy, 953 14. Heraclitus, 908% 30, 934» 34. Herbs, 923* 32. Hesiod, quoted (Works and Days, 582, 586), 879" 28, (7b. 40) 892% 29. Hesitation in speech; see Speech. Hiccups, cause of, 963% 39; stopped by sneezing, 961" 49 ff., 963° 38 ff. ; stopped by vinegar, 961? 20, G62" 1, 963” 6; other preventives, 9621 ff.) 31 ff. Hoar-frost, 888» 30, 938 34, 939” 36, 940° 8. Homer, quoted (//. v.75), 8909; (Od. xx. 71) 894” 34; (Z/. vil. 64) 934°14; (Od. iv. 567) 943” 23; (72. vi, 200-2) 953223; (Od. xix. 1299) 504. ‘Homophony’, less pleasant than ‘antiphony ’, 921° 7 ff. ; produces only a simple sound, ® 12. Bb 2 INDEX Honey, 89025; mixed with flour, 928° 5. Hoofs of animals, gelatinous matter in, 935? 38. Horned animals, less hairy, 8987 24. Horse-back, riders on, water at the eyes, 882 3, 884> 22. Horse-parsley, 923° 34, ?8. Horses, 893” 27, 894212, 896° 10, 897> 35, 89811, 33, °6; period of gestation in, 891528; colour of eyes of, 89221; wild, 895525. Hunger, not felt immediately after exercise, 88421; stimulated by recollection, 886233; ravenous, in cold weather, 887? 38 ff.; more tolerable than thirst, 949) 26, 32. Hypate, 91814, 17, 9199, 12, Q217 10, 21, 24, 9224; easy to sing, 917" 35 ; stopped down pro- duces zefe, 918 1; is double xete (in length of string), 9191; is half #e¢e (in frequency of pitch), 920% 30; effect of 2. produced by stopping down ele, gig 15, 92114; one of the extremities of the scale, 922° 27. Hypodorian mode, unsuited for tragic chorus, 920% 8, 922” Io ff. ; characteristics of, > 15 ff. Hypophrygian mode, unsuited for tragic chorus, 920? 8, 922? ro ff. ; has a character of action, » 13. Imitation, in music, 918517; by actors, > 28; of parents by young, 894° 30. Inanimate Things, Problems con- nected with, 913° 19-915» 35. Incontinence, only used of the pleasures of touch and taste, 949° 6 ff., 37 ff. India, wild dogs in, 895) 25. Infertility, of drunkards, 871 23 ff.; caused by varicocele, 878» 36 ff. Inflammation, cured by salt and vinegar, 889? 19, Injustice, varying degrees of, 952 22 ff.; in respect of money, 9 20, eS Instruments, wind, 9193; impor- tance of ese in tuning, 919% 14 ff., 920? 7 ff.; see also Flute, Lyre. Intelligence and Wisdom, Problems connected with Prudence, 953% 8-957* 35. Intelligence, use of the, 955? 26 ff. Interval, musical, 917” 32, 36; see also Fifth, Lourth, Octave. Jars, buried, cause resonance, 899» 25 ff.; two, one full and the other half full, give an accord in the octave, 922) 35 ff.; capacity of, 938? 14 ff. Journeys, unfamiliar, seem longer, 883> 3 ff., 955° 9 ff. Jumpers, weights held by, 881 4. Justice and Injustice, Problems connected with, 950* 21-9537 7. Justice, association with, makes men just, 9512 5 ff. Kidneys, 876° 20. Knees, strain on, in ascending, 882) 25 ff. Lacedaemonian, 953° I9. Lame, the, are lustful, 880 5. Lameness, more common in man than in the animals, 8952 20 ff. Language, 898» 30, 35. Larynx, 901° 2, > 11, 903% 345.20; go6* I. Laughter, a deep sound, g0o* 21, ‘7; more difficult to restrain among friends, 9507 17 ff.; nature of, 965% 14 ff.; caused by tickling, 965° 23 ff. Laws, originally sung, 919» 38. Lead, 889? 13. Leeks, make the voice loud, 903” 27; cannot endure salt water, 92377. Left side of the body, more com- fortable to lie upon, 886® 15 ff. ; moister and hotter than the right, 961 3 ff. ; inferior to right except in the senses, 958 16, 23, 959 20, 960° 29, Legs, sores on, 861934, 895% 31, go9* 36; of eunuchs, swollen, 876> 31; feel fatigue less than the thighs, 883” 13 ff. Lentil-soup, 936 24. Leopards, never tame, 895 26. Leprosy, 887° 34; white 1, 891 26; found only in man, 894° 37; turns hair grey, 891» 1, 894 6. Lesbos, 946° 34, 947° 4. Letters, use of, in speech, 895° 8, 905* 32. INDEX Libya, 906" 19, 933” 33 ; sheep in, 896" 26; winds in, 94298, 14, 945° 35. Lice, 861% 10 ff., 92479. Lichanos, 919° 17. Life, ‘human 1. is a circle’, 916 28 ff. Light, cannot penetrate through dense objects, 904’ 15 ff., 939% Io ff. ; travels farther and quicker than sound, goq? 16 ff. Lily, 9262 2. “Line of life’, 896% 37 ff., 964° 33 ff. Lion, 950712; not prolific, 892» 2; never tame, 895? 26. Lip, trembling of lower, 948% 36, D1, 73 sensitive to tickling, 9652 18 ff. Lips, see South-West wind. Lisping, 902” 23 ff., 903 23 ff. Literary Study, Problems connected with, 916» 2-917” 16. Loan, robbery of a, less serious than of a deposit, 950° 28 ff., b 28 ff. Loaves, whiter when cold, 927? 27 ff.; heavier without salt, 4 35ff.; do not cohere when cold, | b7ff.; twice-baked, do not be- come hard, 928711 ff.; see also Bread. Locality, Problems connected with the effect of, on Temperament, go9* 13-910 9. Longevity, causes of, 909” 1, 25, 343 indicated by the ‘line of life’, 896* 37 ff., 964% 33 ff. Lye, 863517, 8877, 966? 28. Lying, in a curved position, recom- mended by physicians, 885 27 ff.; on right side induces sleep, 886% 3 ff. Lymph, 891° 18. Ayre,-.618%23, 31> 922° 163. less pleasing than flute as accom- paniment to solo, 9221 ff.; Phoenician, 918» 8. Lyrical character of early tragedies, 920% i2. Lysander, a victim of melancholy, 953” 19. Macedonia, 954° 32. Madness, due to black bile, 860” 23 * Magadizing’, 9197 1, 921° 13, 29. Magnesia, sheep in, 89626; hot waters in, 937° 7, II. Males, larger than females, 891” 21 ; longer-lived, 896% 35; deeper- voiced, go1>28; naturally sup- erior, 951°12; have more teeth, 963° 20; ‘m.’ and ‘female’ ears, 961° 2. Man, sneezes more than other animals, 897° 1 ff., 9628 ff.; the most unjust of the animals, 950° 32; has most wisdom of the animals, 955" 4; reasons for his superiority, 956811; incon- sistency of his thought and action, 956” 33; alone liable to gall-stones, 895 57 ff., to distor- tion of vision, 960% 9, I0, to epilepsy, #18. Maracus, the Syracusan, 954° 38. Marine animals, well nourished, 897” 14. Marjoram, 924% 37, 958°8; put in wine, 926° 32. Market-place, theft from the, 952 18. Marshes, effect of living among, 909" 35, 2, 37, 910%2; subter- ranean roarings in, 937° 38 ff. Masks, tragic, 955% 17. Mathematical Theory, Problems connected with, 910” 11-913 16. Mead, 87226, 974’ 11. Meat, ways of preserving, 930 I. Medicine, Problems connected with, 859% 1-866? 6. Medicine, not administered just after exercise, 883° 33; see also Drugs. Melancholic (atrabilious), effect of wine upon the, 873% 32; the m. suffer from sleeplessness, 874» 18; m. diseases, 878> 38 ; the m. particularly inclined to sexual intercourse, 880% 30; those who hesitate in their speech are m., 903"19; m. humours, 9166, 917%22; the m, temperament, possessed by many eminent men, 953° 10 ff., characteristics of, ®23ff.; the m. start in-their sleep, 957% 33: Melitaean dogs, 892° 21. Melons, cultivation of, 926? 4 ff. Memphis, 945% 22. Menstruation, 891% 31, 35, 895" 34, 896° 29. INDEX Mese, 918% 38, 39, 919211, 922°6; importance of 7, in tuning instru- ments, 919? 14 ff., 920 7 ff.; occurs most frequently of all notes, 919719, 26; why so called, b 20, g22* 21; the highest note in the tetrachord, 920721; ratio of nete to 72., * 31. Messina, Straits of, 932° 5. Milk, 891" 4, 929° 31. Millstone, 964» 37. Mint, cooling effect of, 923% Lo. Mirror, 915" 30. Mixolydian mode, 922? 22. Modes of music, 918>22; Hypo- dorian, 920° 8, 922” 10 ff.; Hypo- phrygian, 920% 8, 922? 10 ff.; Mixolydian, 922 22; Phrygian, Die Moisture, naturally carried down- wards, 904? 27. Money, injustice 950% 24 ff., > 23 ff. Monstrosities, 878% 20, 898 9; their cause, ® 14 ff. Moon, appearance of, at eighth day, 911 28 ff.; appearance when half full, > 35 ff.; reason of flat appearance of, 912° 28 ff.; casts in respect of, longer shadows than the sun, Q124 ft. Moral character, in music, and its nature, 919> 26 ff., 920 2 ff, bi30 ff. Motion, movement, in animals, caused by heat, 875225; usually produces heat but sometimes has a cooling effect, 884% 12; disease a state of m., 8865; of head in animals, 892 19; the sun a cause of m., 899” 21. Mouth and the parts therein, Problems concerning the, 963° 16-964? 19. Murder, of woman worse than of Hea, 951° 11 ff.; accusation of, 2. Music, Problems connected with, 917” 19-923° 3. Music, familiar m. more pleasing, 918* 3 ff., 92032; moral char- acter of, 919” 26 ff., 920° 2 ff., > 32 ff. ; reason of pleasure caused by, P29. Musicians, 91635 ; their aim is to give pleasure, 37. Myrrh, 906° 25, Myrtle, berries, 925° 13, 23, 931°7 5 branches, methods of preserving, 926733 -strees,, 027214) Narcissus, 9257 19. Narratives, concentrated n.s give more pleasure than diffuse, 917” 8 ff. Nasturtium, 925% 30. Navel, size of, in man and the animals, 896° 12 ff. Necks, some animals are without, 892» 20. Neocles, 956 12. Nervous, the, their feet but not their faces perspire, 868° 34 ff., 869” 4 ff.; their voice trembles, go2” 30, 906% 13; their voice is deep, 902” 36, 9055; their heat travels upwards, 903" I. Nervousness, increases hesitancy of speech, 903» 7; makes the voice shrill, 511; a kind of shame, 9058; in singers, 906* 17. Nete, 917” 31, 918° 14, 1, 919°9, 13, 920717, 921* 10, 23, 9224; is half Ay faze (in length of string), gig’1; is double Ayfate (in frequency of pitch), 920* 30; when z. is stopped down, hypate seems to sound, gig Is, 921» 14; ratio of 7. to mzese, 926% 31 ; the most violent note, 92135; one of the extremities of the Scare, 022927. “Nomes’, 91813; why so called, 919” 38. North, dwellers in the, have fine, red hair, 966 33. North-East wind (Caecias), attracts the clouds to itself, 9407 18 ff., 943° 32 ff. North wind, brings cold, 939>18, 945°2; dispels cloud, 93920; occurs at fixed times, 940735, 941 38; ceases to blow at night on the third day, 941°21, » 34; frequency of, 941927, 944° 36; cannot change to the wind on its right, 94112; is strong when it begins, weak as it ceases, 944) 30, 94578, 27; causes hunger, 945° 18; follows quickly upon south wind, » 5; keen during the day, but falls at night, 647228; effects of, in winter, ? 4 ff. INDEX Nose, Problems connected with the, 961° 9-963" 16. Nose, the, bleeding at, Sg1* 13, 962°17; the deaf speak through, 8997 4, 15, 962> 35 ff. ; closely connected with the lungs, 961 17; cartilage of, 963” 14. Note, scale of seven n.s, 918° 13, 919 22, 920° 16, 922%22; scale Gi elght .s, O19P 21,, 922" 21 ; n.s compared with angles, 918? 20; low n.s more conspicuous if out of tune, 91929; easier to pass from a high to a low than from a low to a high n., 9207 19 ff.; a low n. nobler than a high, 223; sound shrillest in the middle of aan e230 a hich sh. requires more effort, »16; lower of two n.s in a chord more suited to melody, 922 28, Numbness, cause of, 8863 Io. Nuts, 930" 15. Octave, 915° 17, 3, 919° 3,13, G21AUZ ehh. 20. 21" -Accordain the o. gives the effect of unison, g18»7; alone used in singing, gis” 40; the most beautiful of all accords, 920° 27; in ‘antiphony’, g21*8; produced by two jars, one full and the other half full, 922” 35 ff.; or by two wine-skins, one double the size of the other, 923% 2 ff.; double o., how obtained in wind instruments, 919” 5; is con- cordant, 92025 ; the ratio of the 02,9210 7 Spe Problems connected with things of pleasant, go6* 23-907” 19; L7roblems connected with things of unpleasant, 907” 20- gog* Io. dar, of persons after puberty, 877" 21 ff., 879222; of flowers, 906" 31, » 23, 35, 907% 20, 29, PI, 33, 908? 37, 9093, 95016; of trees, affected by the rainbow, go6? 36 ff. ; of things in motion is stronger, 907 5, 9088 ; of urine, 907” 21, 908" 28 ; of animals, un- pleasant, except the panther, 907” 35; of perspiration, 908% 2, » 27, goy* 5, 926>17; of the breath of the deformed, 908 29; 0.s are less perceptible in winter, 907° 8 ; are smoke or vapour, 90729; unpleasant 0.s not perceived in eating, »27; rendered more un- pleasant by heat, 90820; see also Perfumes. Oeta, Mt., 953 18. Offspring, resemblance of, to parents, 891° 32, Oil, olive oil, 863522, 8652 11, 925» 8592712 285-0209 12,.032>23, 936* 12, 959” 12, 966” 35, 9679 3 ; beneficial against drunkenness, $7626; mixed with water stops fatigue, 88124; contains heat, 884539; used to expel water from the ears, 9612 18 ff. ; poured into the ears of divers, °24 ff. ; bleached by the sun, 966? 21 ff., 967” 23 ff. Old age, due to lack of heat, 875? 13; long sight in, 959¢ 39; flesh becomes blacker in, 967 13 ff. Olympic victory, 9562 19. Onions, 924% 31, 92519, 27, 926% II, 16, 32, 95857. Ophthalmia, 859>23ff, S60%21; dry o., S60 30; why contagious, 887? 22 ff.; sometimes beneficial to the eyes, 958? 4. Optics, treatises on, 913% 27, 959? 2. Orator, O16" 35, 617" 101) Aimy of the, 91721; inferior to the philo- sopher, 9177 3, 9566; deals with the particular, 917% 4, 956° 8. Orchard-watcher, 938* 16. Orchestra of a theatre, go1? 30. Orchomenus, 926? 5. Organisms engendered in the body by corruption, 924" 8. Orion, 859223; causes changeable weather, 941” 24. Orpiment, 966? 28. Orthian Songs’, 920! 20. Oxen, do not cough, 89179 3 do not change their coats, 898" 33. Oxymel, 92276, Paesus, Lake of, peculiar properties of its waters, 935 34. Pain, caused by a fire to the chilled, 885» 39. Painters, primitive, 895 37; repre- sent rivers pale yellow, the sea blue, 9327 3. Pan-pipes, 919” 8. Panther, pleasant odour of, 907° 35. Paramese, 922” 6, Paranete, 917? 39, 918% 38. INDEX Parhelion, 912° 27. Parhypate, the voice breaks most on, 91730; difficult to sing, b Parmenon, the actor, 948% 3. Particles, connecting, 919% 22. Partridges, 903° 28. Pea-soup, 936° 24. Penalties, for theft, 932717, 953% 33 for assault, 9534. Pennyroyal, 925” 19. Pentathlon, 881° 4. Pepper, as a drug, 864° 12, 17. Per actidens \ per se, 898°" 37, 906? 5. Perfumes, burnt, less perceptible near at hand, 906723, 30, °35, go7* 24; burnt on ashes, more pungent, 907% 13, 35 ; made from flowers, 909° 3. Perspiration, Problems connected with, 866» 9-870? 38. Perspiration, when caused, 866° 7 ff.; why not caused under water, bio ff.; why salty, >19 ff.; why freer cn the upper part of the body, »28 ff.; why produced freely by exercising the arms only, » 33 ff.; why less odorous from head than from body, 867% 4ff.; why more copious after a rest, 9 8 ff., 868915 ff.; why freer on the clothed than the naked, 867° 18 ff.; why freest on the face, 923 ff, > 34 ff, 965° 3 ff.; why most copious if heat is applied gently, 867°28ff.; why more copious if a scraper is used, » 4 ff.; effect of rue upon odour of, S$ ff. ; why freer on back than front, bi2ff.; why freer during sleep, b 31 ff, 869913 ff.; what is the cause of vomiting after p., 8684 5 ff. ; why freest on head and feet, yo ff.; why freer after than during exertion, 86815 ff., ?12ff.; why more necessary in summer than in winter, *26ff., 869» 32 ; why does p. lighten the body, 868° 35 ff., 965% 20ff.; why less free if one eats as well as drinks, 868> 29 ff.; why do the nervous perspire on the feet and not on the face, > 34 ff, 8694 ff.; how can the face be red without per- spiring, 86978 ff.; in vapour baths, #19, ®20; why healthier to perspire naked than clothed, 224 ff.; hot p. healthier than cold, 8707 15 ff., 959°25; less free in front of a large fire, 87021 ff. ; freer in the clothed, # 26 ff.; freer in those walking up hill, 9 32 ff. ; freer in summer, °6ff.; spon- taneous inferior to artificial, b 14 ff. ; less free in winter, > 27 ff.; odour of, 908%2, »27, gog*5, 92617. Philosopher, superior to orator, 91723, 9566; deals with the general rather than the particular, 9177 4, 5, 956° 7. Philoxenus, 950? 3. Phlegm, 860725, 30, »3, 10, 880% 24, 891712, 90122, 906% 2, 908 15; diseases due to, 878 14. Phoenician lyre, 918? 8. Phrygian mode, 922” 21. Phrynichus, 92011. Phthisis, 8601 ; emission of semen during sleep by sufferers from, 88426; why contagious, 887 22. Physical Problems, Summary of, 8919 6-898» 25. Physics, the, of Empedocles, 929? 6 16. Pigs, prolific, 892 1, 898% 12; does not shed its coat, 893°4; bad- tempered after bearing young, 894>13; compared with wild boar, 896? 23. Plague, why contagious, 859” 15 ff. Plaintiff, advantages of, in a suit, OF EV 27: Plane-tree, 912 12. Plants, wild \ cultivated, 896% 6 ff, 92418; stones dislodged by, go2®2; contain no excretion, go8* 10; roundness of stems in, gis* 29 ff.; growth of, 916° 12 ff. ; cooking of, 92317, 21; edible and inedible, #25 ff.; annual and biennial, * 33; time to water p.s, g24>15ff.; effect of watering, 926° 21 ff. Piaster, fresh p. gives resonance, 899» 18. Plato, a victim of melancholy, 953 27; his answer to Neocles, 956 Te Pleiads, 859% 23, 861 20. Pleurisy, drunkards liable to, 871 3°33: Poet, 954° 39. INDEX Poetry, 953° 11. Pomegranate, 923% 14, ? 25. Pontus, corn in, 909219; extreme variations of temperature in, 938 37. Porridge, 863? 6. Portents, 902° 8. Positions assumed in lying down and in other postures, 885» 12- 886 21. ‘ Posterior’, meaning of, 9167 18 ff. Poultices, 863° 6, 864» 32. Poverty, more common among the ews than among the bad, 950” 9 ff. ‘ Prior’, meaning of, 916 18 ff. Professions, honourable \ mean, 9177 6 ff. Property, law-suits regarding, 951» 9. Proportions of the human body and their relation to longevity, 898% 37 ff. Proverbs quoted, 938” 10, 941° 21, | 9422, 943735, 33, 945°8, 28, 36, © 3, 947° 7. Prudence, Intelligence, and Ws- dom, Problems connected with, 953° 8-957" 35- Prudent, the, acquire rather than spend, 956? 37. Pumice-stone, noise of cutting p. causes shuddering, 886» 11, 939 38; porosity of, 964» 38. Pumpkins, 923214; grow well if buried, °16 ff.; keep fresh in wells, 924" 36 ff. Purse-tassels, 926 6, 19. Purslane, 863” 11, 887" 1. ‘Pycnon’, 922» 7. Pygmies, 892° 12. Pythagoreans, 910? 37. Quadrupeds, hair of, 89630; do not sneeze, 897%10; small q.s produce monstrosities, 898% 9. Quartan fever, 861° 5, 866% 31. Radishes, 8907 25, 908» 3, 923° 37 ; cultivation of, 924 24 ff. Rainbow, its effect on trees, 906% 37; due to refraction, 906? 7. Raisin-wine, 926” 38. Rams, 96321; their hides, 889» I1; effect of castration upon, 894° 23. Reading, keeps some awake and sends others to sleep, 916? 2 ff. g17* 18 ff. Recitation with musical accompani- ment, 91* Io, Recollection, a cause of sympathetic action, 886* 33, 887°6; gives an impulse to sexual desire and hunger, 886% 34. Rectilinear figure, 910” II, 19. Refraction, of light, 906” 7, 912” 30; of sound, 899925, & 22, go1” 19, 22, 904* 38, » 30. Respiration, rhythmical, of runners, §82? 1 ff.; see also Breathing. ‘Reticulum’, the, 895” 20. Revolutions of unevenly weighted objects, 913° 33 ff., 915” 6 ff. Rhetorical displays, 916” 25. Rheumatism, drunkards liable to 871» 25. Right side of body, easier to sleep on, 8867 3, 16; the more active, ®7; superior to the left except in the senses, 95816, 23, 959% 20, 960° 29; more easily set in motion, except the eye, 959° 31; less moist and hot than the left, Cores at. Roll (of a book), 914? 25 ff. Roses, scent of, 907% 20, 909>3, 950*16; perfume made from, 908? 3. Roundness, of parts of animals and plants, 915% 25 ff. ; of extremities, 915” 33 ff. Rue, 867 8, 926516; grows best if grafted on a fig-tree, 924” 35 ff. ; a remedy against the evil eye, 926° 20 ff. Runners, use of arms by, 881” 4 ff.; rhythmical respiration of, 882> 1 ff. ; shock to rs when stopped suddenly, 885° 6 ff. Running, effect on the head, 881» 7; effect of violent r., 882% 29; more liability to fall while r. than walking, » 22; why more difficult than walking, 88337; colder than standing in the winter, 888» 21; produces less flesh than friction, 966° Io ff. Salamis, the battle of, 956% 20. Salt, effect of, on the gums, 863° 11, 8871; a cure for inflamma- tion, 88919; crackling of, in the INDEX fire, 902° I ff., 9042 4, 13; makes bread lighter, 927° 35 ff.; melts more freely in salt water than in fresh, 934° 1 ff. Salt Water and the Sea, Problems connected with, 931* 35-936" Io. Salt water, drunkards sensitive to, 872° 9 ff., 873” 37 ff.; suits celery, 923°6; warmer than fresh, * 39 ff. ; dries quicker than fresh, » 25 ff. ; combustible, 933% 17 ff., 935% 5 ff.; drinkable when heated, 933” 12 ff.; does not flow readily, 933” 22 ff.; see also Sea. Sand, 93412; does not form in lakes, 935° 10 ff. Satyrus of Clazomenae, 875% 35. Saw, sharpening of a, causes shuddering, 886” Io. Scale, of seven notes, 9159 13, 919° 22 OVO" MO O22" 02 Ot mele nt notes, 919” 21, 922 21. Scammony, as a drug, 864% 5, » 13, 19. Scars and Weals, Problems con- nected with Bruises, 889” 1o- 8gI* 5. Scars, §77°2; black on body, white on eye, 88 92cff., 890% 32 ff., > 27; black on splenetic persons, 8g90* Io ff.; congenital, #19; hair does not grow upon human s.s, b 38f., 893528, 894713 ff.; but grows on animal s.s, 89327, 40 ff., 894° 12 ff. Scent ; see Odour, Smell. Science, created by man, 953° 27; an instrument of the intelligence, 37- Scraper, athlete’s, 867° 4. Sculpture, primitive, 895 37. Scurvy, why contagious, 887% 22, 33. Scythia, quick growth of crops in, 925° 26. Scythians, fond of wine, 872° 3. Sea, Problems connected with Salt Water and the, 931® 35-936* Io. Sea, calmed by throwing in objects, 931 19 ff.; whiter inthe Black S. than in the Aegean, 932721; more transparent than fresh water, 932” 8ff., 935%17; more transparent when the wind is N. than S., 932 16ff.; contains an oily substance, »5, 19; easier to swim in than fresh water, 933% 9 ff.; saltier on the surface, 934” 23 ff.; fresher near land, » 37 ff. ; why salt, 935 34; why shells and stones are round in the s., 935° 37 ff.; white when calm, black when rough, 93675 ff.; made black by N., and blue by S. wind, 944? 21 ff. ‘Sea-lungs ’, 8907 26. Seasons, effect of, on the body, 659% OTL; 861° 20.ff,, ads Sait; 662" 34, >7 ff, 11 fh, 25 ff Sea-weed, 926 35, »2. Seeds, sweet-smelling, promote the flow of urine, 907” 3; plants live to produce seeds, 923 30, 35," 4; more pungent than roots, » 30; older s.s produce more stalk, 924° 27 ff. Semen, alone produces offspring, 878 1 ff. ; an excretion from the whole body, »3, 87925 ; passed from the brain through the spine, 89725; emission of, during sleep, 876211, 9215, 963712, in illness, £769 12, by the dying, ®13, 877226, owing to fright, 876° 13, 877925, 9498 20, by those who are fatigued and hy the phthisical, 884° 6. Sexual Intercourse, Problems con- nected with, 876* 30-880" 12. Sexual intercourse, beneficial in diseases caused by phlegm, 8652 32 ff, 878>14ff.; the drunken are incapable of, 87215 ff.; position of eyes during, 8763 31 ff. ; effect on eyes and flanks, ® 36 ff., S808; effect on vision, 876» 24 ff.; bareness of feet prejudicial to, 877° 5 ff.; man languid after, 216 ff., » 32, 879% 4 ff.; aturgid state necessary for, 877° 35 ff.; easier when fasting, > 44ff.; the young feel loathing after, P 10 ff.; riding predisposes to, 14 ff.; difficult in the water, 878° 35; of fishes, *39; why pleasant, 878>1ff.; cools and dries the stomach, 17 ff.; those who wish to pass urine cannot have, > 33ff.; men less capable of, in summer than in winter, 879° 26 ff, 880411 ff.; why some prefer an active, others a passive part in, 879° 36ff.; why a cause of shame, S8c°6ff.; effect of INDEX abstinence from, 8§0* 22 ff.; the melancholic particularly addicted to, 880 30 ff.; desire for, stimu- lated by recollection, 886% 33; the beautiful as a stimulus to, 896” 12 ff.; effect upon offspring of condition of parent at time of, 891" 34 ff.; production of life without, 892 23 ff.; more frequent among tame than wild animals, 8967 20; the intemperate in s.i. called incontinent, 950% 1 ; makes men despondent, 955% 26. Sexual organs, effect of fear upon | the, 948 10, 9492 8. Shadows, cast by sun, their increase and decrease not uniform, 9114 14 ff.; shortest at midday, ® 34 ff.; longest at sunrise and sunset, g12* 34ff ; moon casts longer s.s than sun, > 4ff.; extremity of s. trembles, 913% 5 ff.; nos. thrown by the base of a bubble, 2 19 ff. ; of floating wood, ®* 23. Shame, causes blushing, 903° 3, go52 7; makes the cars red, 957” TOR GOO™ ZOE 5) O6198,. 31 7's. dwells in the eyes’, 957” 11. Sheep, milk of, 8914; eyes of, far apart, $9213; wool of, 893” 13, 17, 36; Maznesian and Libyan, 896% 26; prolific, 8954 12. Ships, seem more heavily laden in harbour than out at sea, 931? g ff.; travel more quickly towards than from land, » 10 ff.; sudden disappearance of, at sea, » 39 ff.; shape of, 9327 18. Shivering, Problems connected with Chill und, 887* 10-889» 7. Shivering, simultaneous with per- spiring, 878° 6 ff. ; after sneezing, 887» 35 ff., 963% 33 ff. ; after pass- ing urine, 887 35, 8881, 963% 33; caused both by hot and by cold water, 888 32 ff.; see also Shuddering. Short-sighted, the, write small, 955° 35, > 34; screw up the eyes, 959" 3; hold objects near to the eyes, "39: Shrewdness, meaning of the term, 91721; to whom applied, 916” 35. Shrill, weeping a s. sound, goo 20 ff., >7 ff.; voices shriller, at a distance, 899% 22 ff, 901° 20ff., in winter, 905% 24 ff.; s. voices audible farther, 904»7 ff.; see also Voice, shriliness of. Shrubs and Vegetables, Problems CONCEPNING, 923% 5-927% 9. Shuddering, causes of, 8869 f., 964° 32 ff.; at the touch of others, 964° 21 ff.; after taking soli:l food, 965° 33 ff.; see also Shivering. Sibyls, 954° 37. Sight, long, in old age, 959» 39 ; see also Eyes, Short-sighted, Vision. Silver, 864° 34 ; purification of, 936 25 ft. Sitting, makes some fat, others lean, 885» 15 ff. Skin, effect of hot water on the, 936" 12 ff., 9379 1off.; s.s for holding liquid, 93815, see also Wine-skins; inflated s.s, pre- servation of food in, 931* 39 ff, 939” 12 ff., pain caused to limbs enclosed in, 937! 31 ff., cause of their floating, 939% 33 ff. Skull, 896 31 ; sutures in, #35. Sky, clearer at night than by day, 938” 5 ff. Slander of public official more serious than of private persons, O) PAD GHs Sleep, perspiration more copious during, 86731ff., 869% 13 ff.; position of eyes during, 876° 32 ff.; easier if one lies on the right side, 886% 3; is absence of movement, #7; prevented by cold, 88715, 889” 3; shortness of, in animals, 894%21 ; induced or prevented by reading, 916? 2 ff., 9172 18 ff. ; nien in deep s. see no visions, 956" 39 ff.; sneez- ing never occurs during, 963° 5 ff. Smell, as a stimulus to sympathetic action, ~ 887%1off.; see also Odour. Smoke, effect of, on the eyes, 896» 8, 957> 33, 9595; odours are s. or vapour, 907* 29. Sneezing, a turgid state necessary for, 877 35 ; followed by shiver- ing, 887” 35 ff., 963% 33 ff.; com- monest in man, 892 22 ff., 897% I ff., 962" 8 ff. ; cause of, 897912, 963*7; stopped by rubbing the eye, 957%38, 96127 ff., 962% 26ff.; cause of s. twice, 961» 33 ff.; after looking at the sun, 961» 36 ff.; cures hiccups, 962 INDEX I ff., 963% 38 ff.; regarded as | divine, 962° 21 ff., 32 ff.; a good sign between midday and mid- night, 962» 19 ff. ; difficult for the old, » 28 ff.; never occurs during sleep, 963° 5 ff. Snub-nose, cause of, 963° 11 ff. Socrates, a victim of melancholy, 953% 27. Soda, 863 17, 887 7, 936% 2. Solstice, 8628, 94115, 20. Soothsayers, 954° 37. Sores, treatment of, 865225; on head, 861% 33, 909% 35; on legs, 861" 34, 909% 36, (of eunuchs) 895 31 ; caused by exertion, 883 26; by black bile, 953718, 954° 26 Sound, every s. is a breath, &86» 15; is air set in motion, 899% 34, 90213, 9204; refraction of, 899225, &22, go> 19, 22, 904% 38, ©30; more audible at night, 899 19 ff., 903° 7 ff.; audibility of, in buildings, >13 ff; can penetrate through dense objects, 904? 19 ff., 905% 36 ff. ; travels less far and more slowly than light, 904° 16ff.; not audible through water, 90510 ff.; effect of a number of persons making the same s. simultaneously, 904° 33 ff., 917? 21 ff. South wind, attracts clouds, 939” 19 ff., 945° 38 ff.; does not occur at fixed times, 940% 35 ff. ; blows after hoar-frost, 8 ff; less frequent than N. wind, 941° 27 ff. ; in winter blows as much by night as by day, ® 31 ff.; blows regularly in the season of the dog-star, ® 37 ff., 944° 4 ff.; periods of the, 942° 5 ff.; causes evil odours, ® 16 ff.; rainy when it begins and ends, ® 29 ff.; when weak, brings clear weather, ® 34 ff.; why rainy, 943° 5 ff.; one of the most frequent winds, 944° 36 ff.; makes the sea blue, > 21 ff.; its effect on the clouds, »25 ff.; weak when it begins, strong when it ceases, barf, 945°S8 ff, 27 ff; makes men heavy and weak, ®14 ff. ; does not blow in the maritime parts of Egypt, ® 20; if dry, causes fever, 946° 4 ff. South-East wind (Eurus), why rainy, 943% 5 ff.; rises at dawn, 413; makes objects look larger, 946° 33 f. South-West wind (Lips), brings rain at the Equinox, 942° 25 ff. ; naturally moist, » 33, 94372; in Egypt, 945° 24. Speech, effect of drunkenness upon, 875» 19 ff.; the mind is the source of, ®31; many forms of human, 8956; defined, * 10; hesitation in, 895% 15, 90238, © 17, 9037, 19, 905216, 20, » 29; peculiar to man, 899° 2. Spiders’ webs (gossamers), a sign of wind, 947% 33 ff. Spine, 897» 26. Splenetic persons, have black scars, 890% Io. Sponge, 93820; used to protect the ears of divers, 960° 15 ff, Sponge-divers ; see Divers. Spontaneous generation, 898? 5. Squills, 926° 6, 19. Squinting, 896? s. Stammering, go2? 24 ff. Standing, less cold than running in the winter, 888» 21. Stars, are warm, 93916; are cold, according to the ancients, » 34; shooting, a sign of wind, 942 16 ff. Starvation, as a cure for disease, 85977; swelling of the feet due TOME ouk. Stature, effect of climate upon, 909? 15 ff. Stomach, dissolvent power of the, 367 27. Stones, dislodged by plants, 902» 2; form more in hot than in cold water, 9379 II ff. Straw, effect on sound of spreading S.. 901 30, Strength, not communicable to others, 95185. Strings, thinner give shriller note, go1*18; the lower s. gives the note, 918° 37 ff. ; tuning of, gI9g® 14ff., 920>7ff.; tight, give a shrill note, 920» 3. Stucco, 899” 22. Suicide, after drinking, 955° 8, 22. Sulphur, 937° 24, 28. Sun, the, drunkards like the warmth of, 875” 5 ff., 34 ff.; warmer to stand than to sit in, 884" 11 ff.; INDEX a source of movement, 899° 21; disturbs the air in the daytime, 903" 8; shadows cast by, do not increase and decrease uniformly, g11° 14 ff.; shapes formed by, passing through quadrilaterals, > 3 ff. ; reason of flat appearance of, 91228 ff.; casts longest shadows at sunrise and sunset, and shortest at midday, ® 34 ff.; casts shorter shadows than the moon, ? 4 ff.; eclipse of, -11; a parhelion forms only at the side of, > 27 ff.; rising of, effect upon the winds, 9447 35 ff., 9463 ff, 947° 26 ff.; - looking at, causes sneezing, 961° 36ff.; bleaches wax and oil, but darkens the flesh, 966> 21 ff, 967% 23 ff.; its effects upon the flesh, 966° 21 ff.,, 967° 20 ff., > 24 ff. Sunset, signs of coming weather at, 941* I ff. Superparticular ratio, 920% 26, g21> 6 Surgery, \ cauterization, 863? Io ff.; \ drugs, #19 ff.; use of copper instruments in, ® 25 ff. Sweat; see Perspiration. Swimming, easier in the sea, 933° gff.; effect upon the bowels, 935» 28 ff. Syllogism, 917° s. Sympathetic Action, Problems con- nected with, 886% 24-887> 8. Sympathy with suffering, cause of, 887° 15 ff. Symphonic, accompaniment, 918° 30; notes, » 35. Syracusan, 954% 38. Syria, 906" 18, 908 14. Tame, \ wild, animals, 895» 23 ff. Taste, pleasures of, 949°6, 37. Tears, hot and cold, 959° 20 ff. Teeth, 898922, 26; set on edge, 886" 12 ff.; men with porous, spongy teeth are_ short-lived, 896 30ff., 963518 ff.; of Ethio- pians, 898° 12; effect of figs upon, 931% 27 ff. ; sensitive to cold, 963” 22 ff, 26 ff.; more numerous in males than in females, » 20. Temperament, Problems connected with the effect of Locality on, 909% 11-910" 9. Temperament, persons of moist, more affected by exertion, 883 3ff.; persons of equable, feel fatigue but throw it off, >11 ff. Temperance and Intemperance, Continence and Incontinence, Problems connected with, 949% 21-950% Ig. Temperance, ill effects of a sudden change to, 949? 23 ff. Temperate, association with the, makes men t., 95195. Tens, counting in, g10) 23 ff. Terpander, 920717. Thapsia, 864? 5, 890%7, 18, 25. Theatrical artists, bad character of, 956° 11 ff. Theft, penalties for, 952? 17 ff., 953% 3 ff. Thighs, strain upon the, in descend- ing, 882525 ff., 88349; on long journeys, 882> 37 ff.; feel more fatigue than the legs, 883" 13 ff., 885° 30 ff. Thirst, caused by fear, 947° 16, 9487 1, 7, °13; less tolerable than hunger, 949? 26, 32. Thracians, 911? 2. Thriasian Plain, 942® 19. Thunderbolt, 937» 26, 28. Thyme, 925% 8. Tickling, felt most in the armpits and the soles of the feet, 964» 30 ff.; a man cannot tickle himself, 965%11 ff.; stimulates laughter, 216; the lips sensitive to, * 18 ff, Tongue, the, effect of drunkenness upon, 87519 ff.; effect of cold upon, 888° 7 ff. ; of animals, 892 33 ff.; effect of sour matter upon, 931*12; as an indication of disease, 963° 33 ff.; of sheep, b35; coloration of, »38, 964% 4ff.; becomes bitter but never sweet, * 1 ff. Touch, Problems connected with the effect of, 964° 20-965* 39. Touch, the pleasures of, 949° 6, 37. Tragedies, early, writers of, pri- marily musicians, 920% II ; main- ly lyrical, ® 13. Tragic chorus; see Chorus. Trembling, of drunkards, 871% 27 ff., 87422 ff.; of shadows, 913° 5 ff.; from fear, 947” 12 ff., 9484 35 ff., » 6ff.; see also Voice, trembling of. INDEX Trite, 918% 15, 920% 17. Troy, 916% 19. Tug-of-war, 888? 21. Tunes ‘running in the head’, 902 30 ff. Twins, difference of sex in, 894° 7 ff. Unguents, 926717; see also Per- fumes. Unison, 9188. Unsymmetrical, appearance of the, gis? 37 ff. Urethra, 895" 9. Urine, examination of, 865) 6ff. ; incontinence of, 876* 15 ff. ; those who wish to pass u. cannot have sexual intercourse, 878 33; pass- ing of, as a result of sympathy, $567 2055 305) 687255, aS waere= sult of fear, 948> 36; cdour of, ¢o7? 21; shivering after passing, 887» 35, 888" 1, 963% 33; flow of, promoted by sweet-smelling seeds and plants, 9073, 924» 18 ff. ; by garlic, 9077, 908*28, 949° 6; by anise and wormwood, *2. Vapour baths, 867729, 869%9, DZ Oth. Varicocele, prevents procreation, 878» 36 ff.; not found in eunuchs, 894? 39. Vegetables, Problems connected with Shiubs and, 923% 5-927 9. Veins, swollen, 885 31. Vinegar, 9597, 14; a cure for in- flammation, 88919; stops hic- cups, 961” 20, 962° 1, 963" 6. Violets, white, 909° 1, 7. Vipers, never tame, 895" 26. Vision, the, effects of drunkenness upon, 872° 18 ff., > 3 ff., 874 5 ff., 8759 ff.; takes the form of a cone, 872% 37, 9115, 16, 20; effect of sexual excess upon, $76) 24 ff. ; cannot penetrate hard objects, 905* 35 ff., or porous objects, 939 12; physical exercise detrimental to, 95828 ff.; green and yellow the only colours beneficial to, 959 24 ff.; why improved by shading the eyes, 960%21 ff; see also Leyes, Sight. Voice, Problems connected with the, 898» 28-906 20, Voice, defined, 899222, 9goo® 34, 904% 25, > 27, 94827; man can utter many v.s, 89525; animals possess v. but not speech, 895 18; travels in every direction, 899 35 ; comes to perfection late in man, 905% 30; v. and hearing have the same source, 898» 29, 31; loss of, 88838; more audible below than above, 904223; higher when echoed back, 91835; breaks on parhvpate, 917” 30 ff. ; broken, after meals, 900717, of drunkards, 9041; deep, in adults, goo? 16, in winter, » 29, gol*1, 90538, after drinking and vomiting, 9gco> 39; less audible at a distance, 90177; of males, » 28, 903% 28; of the nervous, 902» 36, 9055; of the drunken, 905225; loud, of hot- natured persons, 899710, after eating leeks, 90327; low, of those who hesitate in speech, 903* 38; rough, after sleepless- ness, goo* 10; shrillness of, 899 22 ff., goo" 22, 901220, in child- ren, #32, go1>24, in boys, women, and eunuchs, goc? 15, 90124, 903° 27 ff., after violent exertion or illness, 880" 29, gc1 30 ff., due to weakness, 903? 30, of the frightened, 902» 37, 905% 6, in winter, 905% 24; shriller at a distance, 9co? 20 ff., >7 ff. ; shrill v.s audible farther, 9047 ff. ; trembling of, 902" 30 ff., 906% Io, 948* 35, 7. Vomiting, after perspiring, 868? 5 ff. ; caused by watery wine, 873» 24 ff.; a turgid state necessary for, 877925; cures fatigue, 881? 12; the voice is deeper after, goi* 1; lightens the body, 965» 29. Votes, if the v.s are equal the de- fendant wins, 951° Io ff., 952” 36. Vowels, 895° Io. Walking, over level and uneven ground compared, 880" 15 ff, 881518 ff., 8839 22 ff., 885% 14 ff. ; fattens the legs, 881% 11; short distances, fatiguing, » 37 ff., $84» 8 ff.; effect of violent w., 882 29 ff. ; less liability to fall when w. than when running, » 22 ff.; why easier than running, 883° 37 ff. INDEX Water, Problems connected with fot, 936% 11-937 28; Salt, and the sea, Problems connected with, 931° 35-936* Io. Water, effect upon health, 860? ZO ike OOl a ititys el Ones) eU DON colour of animals, 891° 13 ff. ; present in most foods, 860? 35, in bread, 927% 30; becomes cor- rupt, 93927 ; powers of satura- tion, 939*29ff.; contact with, does not moisten the air, 938? 17 ff., 939717 ff.; effect of drip- ping, 9021; less white when in motion, 934° 13 ff.; more salty in regions facing S., *3o0ff.; fire- heated more aholoconie than sun- heated, 937° 34 ff., °5 f. ; in wells, temperature of, 936716 ff.; boils over more easily in winter, ® 37 ; boiling, temperature of vessels containing, 936932 ff, »13 ff., no scum on, ? 23 ff.; cold, makes a shriller sound than hot, goo” 4ff., effect upon the fainting, 937229; hot, causes wrinkles, 936? 10 ff, 9372, at Atarneus, by, at Magnesia, >7, 11, stones forme iny SIs see also Saiz Water. Water-clock; see Clock. Waves, only ripple in a confined space, 931° 35 ff, 934°25 ff. ; begin to move before the wind reaches them, Bk 3 ot 32” 37 ff., 934" 4 ff.; an indication of ine 93229; calm down more slowly i in the open sea, 933° 4 ff. Wax, bleached by the sun, 966» 2h Weals, Problems connected with Bruises, Scars, and, 88g" 10- sg1® 5 Weals, prevention of, 889? to ff. Wealth, more often found in the hands of the bad than of the good, 950” 36 ff. Weariness ; see Futigie. Weather, effect of, on disease, 859” 21 ff. Weights, held by jumpers, 881> 4. West wind, caused by the sinking sun, 9426; makes scent hard to follow, » 13 ff.; drives the largest clouds, P2off.; brings fair weather, 94321 ff., 94621 ff. ; blows towards evening, 944% 1off., 31 ff. ; gentle but cold, 9464 17 ff.; its seasons, ® 18 ff. Wheat, 863° 35 ff., 92928; more nourishing than barley, 927717. Wheaten-bread, 927" 22. Wild X tame, animals, 895» 23 ff., 896° 20 ff.; \ cultivated, plants, 896° 6 ff., 9242 18 ff., 927% 4 ff. Wills, set aside in favour of claims of birth, 950? 5 ff. Windpipe, 9017, 14, 960” 36, Winds, Problems connected with the, 940° 16-947? 9. Winds, effect of, upon health and disease; m1o507 ON tle co2i7aatl:, 26 ff.; coming w.s indicated by waves, 93229 ff.; blow cold in early morning from rivers but not from sea, 933727 ff., 943° 4ff.; alternating, cause of, 940? 16 ff., come from the sea, 21 ff, blow in bays, not in open sea, 945*1 ff.; rise before eclipses, 942° 22 ff. ; strongest as they end, b 23 f.; cause dryness, 943° 28 ff. ; change into their contraries or those on their right, » 29 ff. ; effect of sunrise on, 944425 ff.; source of, 4 ff.; noneon high mountains, b 12 ff.; due to motion caused by heat, 945" 8 ff.; different w.s bring rain in different places, 946” S2iteomIneATeAdiay O47 511 Gita + last if they begin at dawn, ® 25 ff. ; see also Last wind, North wind, &C. Wine and Drunkenness, Problems connected with the drinking of, 871% 1-876 28. Wine, contains heat, 87171, 39, 874> 35; children dislike, 872* 2; the brave are fond of, 948? 13; has the same effects as black bile, 953%34; unmixed, less violent in its effects, 871 16 ff. 873° 4 ff, 8749 28 ff., fatal to the lean, *35 ff., to be taken with fruit, 930° 21 ff. ; sweet, effects of, 872" 26 ff., 32 ff., 874» 11 ff., those who drink do not become drunk- ards, 8751 ff. ; seems sweetest if taken with barley-meal, 929 31; causes both frenzy and stupefac- tion, 873% 23 ff.; effect on the melancholic, *32ff.; watery, causes vomiting, »>24ff.; im- proves hesitation of speech, 903» . INDEX Sife) veauses lisping, 25 if. yields up its odour more quickly when diluted, 907513 ff.; effect of marjoram upon, 926? 32 ff.; taste of, after eating rotten fruit, 930” 5 ff., and sour fruit, 931? 6 ff. Wine-skins, two, one double the size of the other, give an accord in the octave, 923° 2 ff. Wisdom, Problems connected with Prudence, Intelligence, and, 953° 8-957" 35. ; Wisdom, superior, of those who live in warm regions, 910%26 ff.; practical, of man, 9554 ff.; in- creases with age, >22ff.; no prizes offered for, 956> 16 ff. Woman, murder of a, more terrible than of a Man, OF 19 ret. ceesee also Females. Words, uttered by man only, 905 2s Wormwood, 949° 2. Wounds heal more readily in the young, 961° 5. Wrestling-school, theft from, 952° 18. Wrinkles, caused by hot water, 936° Io ff., 937% 2 ff. Yawning, 961° 37 ff.; why infectious, 886% 24 ff., 31 ff., 88794 ff.; pre- vents hearing, 9029 ff., 904? 16 ff. Yellow objects, beneficial to the sight, 959% 24 ff. Zephyr; see West wind. : r DATE DUE READY FU UISPLA APR 16 REC'D ACANTIMI CO YTInpa iaaaiiiiut Tks Y Sie egg en B407 .S6 1908 v.7 | Aristotle | The works of Aristotle